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07 31st, 2009| 
COINS AND MEDALS
Coins should not be cleaned unless it is absolutely necessary. They loose a lot of value through faulty cleaning, and it is just as important to know when to clean as to know how. Get a book out of your library on coin collecting and study it before cleaning any coins, if you know little of the subject.
Gold Coins. Wash very dirty coins in soap and water using a stiff bristled brush very carefully. Dry gold coins with a soft cloth or soft leather.
Silver Coins. If silver coins are not in exceptionally good condition and arc rather worn, removing the ingrained dirt will often make them look a lot worse! If they are tarnished to a blue or green colour, this gets damaged by too much washing and brushing up, and most collectors prefer to leave well alone. Silver coins which arc in really good condition but have uneven toning or are just plain filthy, should be treated either with carbon tetrachloride or trichlorethylene (see Solvent_). This is dabbed (not rubbed) on very gently, and immediately afterwards the coins are washed in running water. On really ugly toning use Goddard’s Silver Dip but do not wash the coins afterwards or they will look too highly polished. Don’t rub coins with the polishing cloths provided with cleaners. Ammonia in ten per cent solution will also remove stains, the coins being washed immediately after application; otherwise a whitish skin will appear which will ruin all your careful work.
Copper coins. Verdigris on copper coins is often caused by cigarette ash dropping on to them, and although this is hard to remove it can sometimes be done by soaking the bad part iun olive oil and scratching the verdigris off with a bone needle. Don’t use steel needles for they scratch the surface of the coin. Don’t use solvents on copper coins, just clean them with a stiff bristle brush used quite dry.
Copper, silver and bronze coins and medals can also be cleaned by immersion for a very short time in a solution of five per cent nitric acid. Do this with great care for the acid will etch metal, particularly copper. Take the pieces out after one or two seconds and wash them immediately under a running tap. If only a part of the coin is corroded, protect the rest of it from the acid with a coat of wax or grease before immersion in the acid, and then wash it thoroughly. Polish coins with a little lanolin grease or Renaissance wax polish. I
DETERGENTS
Detergents are the modern substitute for soap, and are perfectly suitable for many cleaning jobs as they so readily remove greasy dirt. However, some of the commercial brands sold as washing powders, or as liquid washers, have added ingredients of some kind : scent, colour or ‘whiteners’. While clung, glass and pottery can be cleaned quite safely with these, they are often not suitable for cleaning other Materials, and where detergent is recommended it is best to use a pure detergent such as the following:
Teepol
Boots Liquor Sulphestrol Lissapol N.
Detergent can be mixed with other chemicals to make an emulsion which will spread and penetrate easier that way-for instance carbon tetrachloride and benzene mixed with one per cent Lissapol N for cleaning some kinds of stonework.
ENAMEL
Enamel is a type of glass with added colours in the form of metallic oxides. This is fused to the surface of metal objects.
Enamel on metal may be of three different types: painted on to an enamelbackground; Cloisorui6, which is done by soldering fine wire to the metal surface to shape the designs, and then infilling with enamel; or Clianipl8ve where the
same effect is achieved by cutting shallow cells into the
surface of die metal to take the enamel. In atypes, an
object is then fired to fuse the glass and enamel.
Enamels should be kept away from direct heat, as the glass will expand at a different rate from its metal base and stresses will be set up which may result in the enamel lifting or crazing. Enamel on metal which doesn’t like damp, such as copper, must be kept dry otherwise corrosion may form on the metal and lift the enamel.
To restore enamels, use ordinary artist’s oil colours, and where chunks are broken off, a good imitation can be made by adding colour to Araldite, or to a thick solution of celluloid in amyl acetate, or to Durofix.
Having retouched the colour, enamelled objects can then be lacquered with Frigilene, or painted with thin acrylic, which will reseal any lifting pieces. Once the lacquer has soaked right in and dried, so that it has filled any cracks and cemented down loose pieces, wipe the surface of the enamel very carefully with a piece of cotton wool wrung out in acetone. Be careful that no liquid acetone runs into joins etc., or it will undo the repair work that has just been done. If enamel has at some time been repaired with animal glue, it may have gone slightly mouldy. Wipe the joins with Santobrite before continuing with retouching and lacquering.
Don’t try to refire enamel, it just won’t work.
FABRICS
All textiles come wider this heading, and generally the cleaning treatments depend upon whether dyes have been used or whether the fabric has simply been bleached or whitened. Cotton and linen have usually been bleached, and go very yellow with age. If the fabric is in good condition use very dilute domestic bleach to rewhiten it, then thoroughly rinse the article in several changes of clean water. Reckitt’s Blue may be added to the last rinse. Delicate articles made of muslin or lace, which are in a fragile state, cannot be given such rough treatment. A powdering of French chalk or Fuller’s Earth, later brushed off, will remove some stains and grease marks. If the article is attached to a cushion for instance, this may be the only way of dealing with it. Lace which can be detached should be placed in distilled water for a while to loosen the dirt, then put into fresh water containing a little pure liquid detergent and soaked again. Paddle it gently up and down in the water if the dirt is stubborn. After careful rinsing, spread the lace on to white blotting paper and pin it flat, and put it in a warm place to dry. It is important to pin lace properly in shape or it may distort during drying.
Muslin garments such as old doll’s clothes or old baby clothes are best washed very carefully in a mild solution of detergent, and should not be rubbed, but gently paddled up and down. It is most important to rinse the garment two or three dines in clean distilled or rain water. The garment should be rolled in absorbent paper and ironed
flat when it is nearly dry.
Coloured fabrics which are not colour fast can be cleaned with carbon tetrachloride. Heavy embossed material will be considerably brightened by brushing with a mixture of four parts benzol and one part methylated spirit.
Test for colour fastness by laying the fabric over white blotting paper, and then patting it carefully with a swab of damp cotton wool. If the colour runs it will show on the blotting paper underneath. If the material is old, the dyes are probably vegetable in origin, and likely to run, so should only be washed in cold water.
To remove large stains on this fabric, place the piece on clean blotting paper and then drop a solvent into the centre of the stain, which will spread out and go through on to the blotting paper carrying die stain with it.
To remove stains on textiles, provided the stain can be identified, try the following treatments, always with care and a minimum of rubbing.
Alcoholic Drinks: Wash in warm suds. Sponge with surgical or methylated spirit.
Beer: Soak in a hot solution of z teaspoonfuls of sodium sesquicarbonate (water softener) to z pints of water, and rinse out well.
Blood: Fresh stains. Soak immediately in a solution of i teaspoonful of salt and i teaspoonful ammonia to i pint of warm water. Then wash out in warm suds, and rinse. Old stains. Try soaking in ammonia solution, r tablespoonful to i pint of water.
Or try a solution of j teaspoonful of ammonia with i part of zo volume hydrogen peroxide with 4 parts of cold water.
Soak for just half an hour if the fabric is coloured, as long as necessary for white or colour fast materials.
On cottons and linens, but not on silks or wool, oxalic acid solution, 2 level teaspoonfuls of crystals in 2 pints of cold water, mixed in a china or glass container, can be dabbed on and removed by rinsing within ten minutes.
Silk or wool should be soaked in a solution of salt and water.
Coffee: If washing does not remove it, try hydrogen peroxide as for blood.
Cosmetics: Clean with carbon tetrachloride. Lipstick can sometimes be lifted from washable fabrics by smearing with vaseline and then washing in warm suds.
Egg Stains: If they won’t wash out, soak in a solution of salt and water, or try one of the proprietary digestive types of stain removers, such as Big S., Biotex or Radiant.
Fruit and Berry Stains: If they won’t wash out they can be removed by working a few drops of glycerine into the stain, leaving it overnight and then damping with a few drops of white vinegar, and then washing out with warm water after two minutes. Cherry, pear, peach, plum and other stubborn fruit stains in cotton or linen can be bleached out with hydrogen peroxide solution as for blood. Soak the stained spot for a few minutes and then wash it out in scsquicarbonate, J teaspoonful to I pint of water.
Glue: Must be removed with solvent. Acetone or nail varnish remover will probably shift it.
Grease: Such as butter or candlewaX. Wash in water with a little ammonia added. Put fabric under blotting papre and iron. Sponge with carbon tetrachloride.
Indelible Pencil: Sponge with methylated spirit.
hik: Ballpoint ink can be removed with methylated spirit. Indian ink must be sponged with methylatedspirit and then rubbed with glycerine. Repeat the treatment until the stain lifts and then wash with detergent and water. Old Indian ink stains are there for ever! Writing ink, the same treatment.
Mildew: This is difficult to remove. Washing thoroughly in sodium sesquicarbonate may help.
Nail Varnish: Remove with amyl acetate or nail varnish remover.
Paint: Emulsion paint; soften it from underneath with amyl acetate, then rub off, and work in a paste of soap and water and wash well. Oil paint, dried; carbon tetrachloride or benzene on the underside till the paint has softened, then wash out as above.
Rust and Ironiyiould: Try oxalic acid treatment as for blood. Rust remover can be used in extreme cases, but must be tried with care and washed out thoroughly.
Shellac: Soften with methylated spirit.
Shoe Polish: Bleach out with hydrogen peroxide.
ABRASIVES
In order to remove rust, tarnish or corrosion from metal of all kinds, when soap and water, oil paraffin mixture, rust removers, metal polishes, etc. have failed or are unsuitable, abrasives are used. In order to get a mirror finish on metal the correct use of die right abrasive is essential. To all intents and purposes, as they get finer, abrasives become polishes. Damaged woodwork can be cleaned and tidied with abrasives, stains and blooms on varnish can be removed; and used in conjunction with paints and varnishes, abrasives help to get deep glossy finishes.
As a general rule, work is started with coarse abrasives and finished with fine abrasives.
There are many different kinds of abrasives, and each
user tends to prefer certain ones; it is not necessary to have
aof them in your workshop. Abrasives can be bought in
loose powder form, as cloth or paper, or in bar compositions for use with buffing tools.
For the purposes of this book it should be useful to describe briefly some of the abrasives and abrasive polishes available. In the various sections, abrasives are mentioned constantly iii respect of specific uses. When working with them, trial and error is the best guide, provided that trials are not carried out on such a big scale that the error becomes irrevocable. After a while an invaluable experience of abrasives and their uses will be built up. Abrasives such as sand and glasspaper, either in sheets or discs for power tools, are used for stripping down and smoothing wooden surfaces, and iii conjunction with paint removers or by themselves, to remove stubborn old paint and varnish. When using sheet sandpaper, glass-paper or emery paper, it call be folded round blocks of wood, or made into sticks by wrapping round pieces of dowelling etc. Discs for sanders on power tools are made in a multitude of grades and qualities, some very rough indeed. Spaced grit carbide discs are excellent for tough work, where scoring of underlying wood can be removed at a later date. Metal discs with tungsten spaced grit over them are almost indestructible and will remove practically anything, but are liable to do damage as well, and should be used with great care.
Sheets of sand or glasspaper are used on finishing power sanders which do not revolve, but work with a fast backwards and forwards action.
Wet and dry emery paper in various grades, so called because it can be used dry or soaked in water as a lubricant without dissolving into pulp, will help to impart a mirror finish to any object which is being painted or varnished. The object is rubbed down with wet anddry between coats until the surface feels perfectly smooth to the fingertips. The emery is used very wet and the lubricating effect of the water helps the emery to cut smoothly without scratching.
Steel wool in various grades is a very versatile material. In rough grades, in conjunction with strippers, it will help to shift paint and varnish. Used with metal polishes it will remove stubborn stuns on metals, and will help chemical rust removers to shift rust. Steel wool pads impregnated with soap are excellent for cleaning greasy metal or wood surfaces. Mirror finishes on wood call be rubbed down with fine steel wool, before waxing to achieve smooth shining but not over
glossy finishes. The uses of steel wool iY1 C011-
junction with wood finishing materials are many, and experience is invaluable. Grade oo or 000 is used for fine work. If you have a polishing lathe with interchangeable mops and brushes, or even if you set up a power drill to take small mops and bobs, you may wish to try liquid polishing compositions. These are equivalent to the bar compositions mentioned below and are intended to be sprayed on to the work as polishing is taking place. This requires special spray equipment so this method is usually only used commercially.
Emery powder, tripoli powder, rottenstone (a mineral found in Derbyshire and mixed with oil), jeweller’s rouge (powdered iron oxide), pumice powder (powdered volcanic lava), crocus powder, carboruriduni, and whiting are all abrasives commonly used in metal finishing, and can be bought in composition bars, either greasy or non greasy, for use with polishing mops and brushes. They are used moistened on soft rags, or on swabs made up on sticks, or on small brushes (old toothbrushes come in handy here).
Obviously care must be taken not to use too strong an abrasive for your particular job. Do not risk making deep scratches which will need even deeper abrasion to be removed, and as polishing proceeds, use finer and finer abrasives until a deep glowing finish is achieved.
ACIDS
Some acids make effective cleaners. They should always be handled with care; rubber gloves must be worn, and the bottles or containers must be carefully labelled, well stoppered, and kept out of the way of children. If you do spill acid on to yourself or your clothing, wash with plenty of clean water and then with water and bicarbonate of soda which is an alkali which will neutralise the acid. When diluting acid, alivays add acid to the water and not vice versa.
Hydrochloric acid. Also known as spirits of salt. Don’t let it get near stainless steel or other metals, except under control, for it will etch the metals. Nor should it touch nylon or any man-made fibres.
Acetic acid. Is the acid constituent of vinegar.
Oxalic acid. A poisonous acid which has many uses as a stain remover. In five per cent solution it will remove ink stains. Two teaspoonfuls of crystals in two pints of cold water will remove blood stains. In saturated solution it will remove black water marks on wood.
Citric acid. A ten per cent solution is sometimes used for stain removing.
Nitric acid. This is a strong fuming acid and if you get will
any on your skin it burn severely. Any slightest amount spilt should immediately be flushed and flooded with water. Skin should be held under a running cold tap. Very diluted, it is used for cleaning gilt and gilding. It can be used to darken soft soldering.
Oleic. Acid in an oily base.
Muriatic acid. Another name for hydrochloric acid. Accumulator acid. Diluted sulphuric acid used in the making of chlorine gas for bleaching.
ADHESIVES
The problems of getting one thing to stick to another have always loomed large for the restorer, especially when the two objects are not made of the same material. Luckily, new types of adhesive have been invented which will literally stick anything to anything. The strength of the stuck joints is also very important, and modern adhesives are so efficient that stuck joins can actually be stronger than any other kind of jour, and where, in the old days the glueing of joins of all kinds was used in conjunction with other fixing methods, dowelling etc., sticking alone is nowadays often sufficiently strong. Adhesives have become so strong as well as water and heat resistant, that it is really no longer necessary to rivet ceramics, and almost totally invisible stuck joints can be made in china. Adhesives mixed with colouring matters, pigments and powders, are used as Hers, thus becoming dual purpose materials (see under Cements and Fillers). Most modern adhesives have many uses and will stick a very wide variety of substances, but some are better than others for particular kinds of work.
Why things stick together is quite involved and difficult to explain. Theoretically, if you can bring two stir-faces together so that they touch all over their surfaces, they may stick together without adhesives. Two sheets of glass will sometimes adhere in this way and become extremely difficult to part. Even two sheets of shiny paper will stick together. I know a trick with a penny, which consists of drawing a coin sharply down a varnished wall surface, and snapping it on with a thumb. The coin will stay there indefinitely if the wall surface is all right. I suppose most of the air is expelled from under the coin, and the rim makes a perfect seal with the varnished surface, and die outside air pressure keeps die coin in place. There was a pub in Potter Heighain in Norfolk, called the Falgate, where the whole surface of die bar surround was covered in coins put there in this way. In fact my father put up the first one. Much later they were all varnished in to preserve them, but eventually the bars in die pub were enlarged and down came die panelling and the pennies. Yet few people would believe that no adhesive was used to keep the pennies up and many of the coins were there for years.
It seems that the function of an adhesive is to make the respective surfaces so smooth that they adhere. When using normal adhesives, as little as is consistent with covering the whole surface should be used, as too much just keeps the surfaces apart, and does not john them together. The john should then be put under pressure and left undisturbed.
All surfaces which are to be stuck together must first be thoroughly cleaned of old grease and glue, or rust, and the adliesive makers’ instructions should be followed carefully. Glues made from gelatine or old type animal glues, can be removed by soaking with warm water. Resinous cements are dissolved by alcohol, celluloid cements can be removed with amyl acetate or acetone. Dissolver will shift modern epoxy resin glues. Once the surfaces are cleaned they should have a rub with sand or emery paper, to make sure all glue is gone, and to give a key for the cement.
Scotch glue. Scotch glue has always been the traditional glue to use for woodwork, and it is still the best glue for veneer work especially where the veneer has to be smoothed or `hammered’ into place with the rounded end of a ball-peen hammer. Scotch glue can be bought either in cake, pearl or powder form. The glue is put into a proper glue pot with water, and left to soak overnight, which makes it swell up and soften. The glue pot is in fact two pots, one within the other. The outside one holds water, the inside one the glue, just like a double saucepan. The pot is put on to simmer and the glue stirred frequently as it heats. Don’t ever boil glue, just get it hot enough to run off the brush when you hold it over the pot, without forming tears. Scotch glue is used hot and is brushed well into the surfaces. It helps to warm the wood before applying the glue. All joints made with Scotch glue should be well cramped or weighted, so that any surplus is squeezed out, and the surfaces brought as close together as possible. Scotch glue is useless for joints or mends which will be exposed to damp, as it will not hold, and in time will even grow fungus. Santobrite call be added to Scotch glue to prevent the formation of fungus. Heat also melts Scotch glue and releases joints.
Durofix. Durofix is a celluloid cement, and is extremely useful as it is transparent, so that it can be built up in layers to form a self-supporting film to repair glass etc. (although acrylic resins have supplanted it for large-scale jobs of this kind). Glass repaired with Durofix won’t stand domestic handling, but for ornamental use it is good enough. One big advantage of Durofix is that it is a one tube adhesive and does not have to be mixed with hardeners.
Et,o-stile. Made in several different types, this is a splendid impact adhesive. Evo-stik Impact Household Adhesive is excellent for joins where the two surfaces may be brought directly together and left without movement until set. Where joins have to be slid together (such as a mortice and tenon joint), this adhesive is not suitable. When using Evo-stik, a coat of the stuff is put oil each surface to be joined, and is left for at least a quarter of an hour. The surfaces are then brought together correctly (no sliding about to get things right), and an immediate bond is made which in time is extremely strong. In fact if you try to break the bond, you may break the wood instead.
Cascattdte is a powder glue which is mixed with water, is good for woodwork, as is
Aerolite which is a powder and a liquid hardener, mixed together in the right proportions for a very strong resin adhesive.
This brings me to the modern epoxy resin two-tube adhesives which are fantastically useful and versatile. There are quite a few makes, and it is not possible to list more than one or two of all the adhesives available in this section, but I think I have mentioned enough to cope with most
jobs.
Plastic Padding. This is a two-tube adhesive and filler, which has a silver metallic colour. It has the advantage of drying very quickly—in ten or fifteen minutes—so that it is useful
will
where speed is helpful. It stick pretty well anything to anything, but its silver colour precludes its use where the join will show, or will not be painted over.
Araldite. In the two-tube pack (A.V. too and H.V. 100), Araldite is suitable for joining any of the materials listed below. All objects to be glued should first be cleaned, the surfaces being thoroughly degreased, then abraded, then degreased again before the adhesive is applied. Also it is important to make sure that surfaces are dry before adhesive is applied, so give them a few minutes in front of a fan heater or on a radiator; or put large objects in an airing cupboard for a while. If there is any paint or old glue on a surface to be joined, it must be removed with a solvent. Dissolver will remove Araldite if it has been used before.
Mix your adhesive on a small piece of glass with a palette knife. Keep some methylated spirit handy for cleaning up, as it will dissolve Araldite while it is still soft. It is important that the contents of the tubes never mix except as and when you want them.
When using two-tube Araldite A.V. ioo and H.V. i oo, warm the two tubes a little before measuring out and mixing the adhesive and it will be thinner, and thus easier to use, but may take a little longer to set.
For china repair Araldite A.Y. 103 and Hardener H.Y. 951 are very suitable because the mixture is thinner; it grips very hard and doesn’t need much pressure to get a good join. Because itis thinner it can be got into small cracks, and it fills all the requirements of unobtrusive adhesion. It is not quite so resistant to water and steam as the two-tube Araldite, so should not be used for repairs to china which is going into domestic use.
All adhesives nixed should be used within an hour as it begins to dry after that time and gets tacky. It is sensible to have a sticking session—collecting together and preparing all the mending jobs you have on hand to do at the same time. It is quite difficult to mix the exact small amount you need for one article and only too ofter, the whole family searches the house for things to mend to use up the adhesive. Left over mixed Araldite will keep in the freezing compartment of your refrigerator for several hours, even overnight, but do not try to keep it there indefinitely or you will end up throwing a useless little hard lump into the dustbin together with the container or sheet of glass to Which it has become firmly stuck.
It is quite simple to measure out the two-tube Araldite exactly because you can squeeze an equal length strip from each tube on to the glass. With the thinner types, measurement is by drops, oreven with two hypodermic syringes— although this would seem to be all expensive way of doing the job. Perhaps it is worth the investment if you are specialising in repairing things with Araldite!
Having mixed the adhesive, spread an even thin coat on each surface of the object, using a match or a rust free nail or a glass rod, and fit the two firmly together. Use gum strip to bind together a join while it dries (see section on Chita). Araldite takes twelve hours to set at room temperature, and three days to harden to maximum strength, but drying can be speeded up by heating, even by baking in a cool oven.
Drying time at 149 deg. C. (3oo deg. F.) 3o rains.
121 deg. C. (zso deg. F.) i hour
79 deg. C. (175 deg. F.) 3 hours
Do not dry at over Soo deg. F. as at that heat the two-tube Araldite resin darkens.
To join the following materials (all must be degreased before and after abrasion):
Brass: Abrade with emery
Ceramics and Porcelain: Abrade with carborundum and water slurry Copper: Abrade with emery
Glass: Abrade with carborundum
Gold: Abrade with fine emery or crocus paper
Lead, Tin and Solder: Abrade with fine emery
Leather: Degrease with great care. Abrade with glass paper Silver: Abrade with fine emery
Steel and Iron: Abrade with emery
Stone: Abrade with a wire brush
Wood: Abrade with glasspaper
Pastes. Special pastes such as Gripfix, and photographic mounting pastes are most useful for paper work as they do not cause cockling or staining. Some photographic mountains have first to be painted on with a soft brush, and then, when the paste has dried for some minutes, the picture or paper is ironed on to its mount with a warm iron over greaseproof paper.
Paste for paper and leather similar to paperhanger’s paste, proprietary brands of which can be bought, are made up as follows: Recipe i. lb. plain flour
oz. powdered alum
Mix with water to a cream, and then add a pint of cold water and heat in an enamel saucepan stirring all the time.
When using this paste for leather add a little thin Scotch glue. Keep this paste away from metal before use or it may pick up discolouring stains.
Recipe z. i teaspoonful plain flour z teaspoonfuls cornflour J teaspoonful alum
3 oz. water
Mix all ingredients together well so that there arc no lumps, bring to the boil in an enamel saucepan, stirring all the time, and boil for a minute or two till thick.
Copydex is an extremely useful white, rubber-based adhesive for all fabrics.
H.M.G. This heat and waterproof adhesive is good for some jobs because it is clear and quick drying, but it is not over strong. It can be handled for up to an hour, and goes totally hard in twenty-four hours. It does not slip, and is dissolved by acetone.
AMMONIA
Ammonia is a gaseous compound of nitrogen and hydrogen. It has the property in liquid form of turning grease into a soluble soap and so removing it. Used as a ten per cent solution in water it gets rid of dirt and grease, and some kinds of silver tarnish. It also makes glass and porcelain sparkle. It should never be used on bronze, and can lift varnish on wood. It is in fact, in a strong solution, quite a good varnish stripper (see Stripping).
Scrubbs Cloudy Ammonia is a ten per cent solution.
Ammonia solution is used for cleaning Ormolu (see Ormolu) and in a very dilute form, marble. A few drops added to beeswax and turpentine (see Beeswax) makes effective furniture polish.
ANTLERS
Antlers and horns, mounted on shaped boards—relics of our big-ganic—hunting grandfathers—are quite common junk objects. If it so happens that you do wish to restore such an object, clean the horns as suggested under Ivory and Bone. Fill any holes or chips with epoxy resin suitably coloured with kaolin powder and a little yellow ochre or brown dry powder pigment to match. Stick broken pieces back in place with Araldite, and put a wire core or pin in hollow broken horns, packed round with filler as described in the section on China Mending. The clean horns or antlers should be coated with a light wax polish to improve their looks. The backboard may need mending or completely stripping off, and repolishing.
Antlers which come complete with the deer’s head are more difficult to cope with if the head is in bad condition. A good brushing with Fullers Earth should clean the hair, but the repair of rotted or torn leather sections may be very tricky and take careful needlework. It may be necessary to re-stuff parts of the head. A good mothproofing is always advisable, so spray well with an aerosol niodiproofer, and an insecticide as well, if necessary.
SWORDS—WATERLOO TO
THE PRESENT DAY
There was no, change in the pattern of swords used by the British Army during the long second period of the Napoleonic wars, which lasted from the reopening of hostilities, after the abortive Peace of Amibns, until the final departure of Napoleon to St. Helena. When the threat from imperial France had been finally removed, however, there was more time for those who meddle with these things to consider the minutiae of military uniform and equipment.
Round about i82o sundry new regulations were published relating to swords. Even the superb light cavalry sword, which had proved its value in action, was not left alone. The old argument was revived as to whether cutting or thrusting was the more important function of a cavalrysword; and because it was not yet appreciated that no sword can be designed which is really satisfactory for both, the weapon which eventually appeared was a compromise which was good at neither.
The new sword was issued to regiments of Hussars and Light Dragoons in 1826. It had the same type of stirrup hilt as the old sword, but the blade was increased in length to thirty-four inches, and was both narrower and considerably less curved. The balance of the sword was quite altered as compared with its predecessor, and this, together with the straighter blade, resulted in a weapon which was far inferior for cutting. For thrusting it was more effective, though by no means satisfactory.
Units seem to have been in no hurry to acquire this new sword, for the 13th Hussars, at any rate, managed to retain the old one until 1829. In 1829 the hilt was changed from the stirrup pattern to a three-bar steel guard, which gave more protection to the hand.
In 1822 the sword of the heavy cavalry received some much needed attention. In contrast, however, to the ill-advised replacement of the efficient light cavalry sword, the only improvement made to the ineffective weapon of the heavy cavalry was the substitution of a sharp point for the original hatchet termination of the blade.
Also in or about :1822 a new sword was introduced for infantry officers. The hilt was a half-basket type of Gothic design, incorporating the Royal cypher, and the half of the guard worn next to the body was hinged to fall downwards, to avoid rubbing the clothing. The inside of the hilt was lined with black patent,leather, and there was a fishskin grip bound with brass wire. The hilts were made of brass, except those of the Rifle regiments, which were steel. The blade was the same length of thirty-two inches as the previous pattern, but it was slightly curved instead of being straight. In addition it was unfullered and had piping down .the back to strengthen it. In spite of the strengthening, however, the blade was weak; and the piping, in fact, prevented it cutting deep.
In 1834 the Highland regiments, which hitherto had worn the same infantry sword as the rest of the Army, were issued with a sword of their own. This had the traditional ‘Highland Basket’ hilt. The blade was the heavy broadsword type similar to that popular in the heavy cavalry in about 1750, (A sword with this type of.hilt is often wrongly called a claymore. The true claymore is a two-handed sword with no other protection than a pair of straight quillons.) The Highland Basket is, not, in point of fact, a very convenient hilt, in spite of the protection it gives. The hand is too confined for the sword to be used very effectively. for thrusting. On the other hand, it was originally designed for cutting;; the body being protected by either the dirk or the targe. Used thus it was a very fine weapon. In addition it was very decorative, and during the reign of the ‘First Gentleman in Europe’ this was frequently of greater importance than efficiency for battle. The hilt was lined with white buckskin and scarlet cloth edged with blue silk, and a crimson silk tassel was suspended from the pommel. Lowland regiments were still armed with the ordinary pattern of infantry sword.
In about 1848 a new sword was at last brought out for the heavy cavalry. It was a vast improvement on the old one. The blade was thirty-six inches long, slightly curved, and tapered to a sharp point. The hilt was steel, and the guard was the first example of the bowl-shell which is fitted to the latest pattern of cavalry sword. On the inside it was lined with leather, and there was a leather covering to the grip.
The new heavy cavalry sword had a very short life, for in 1853 a sword was approved for issue to all cavalry regiments, whether heavy- or light. This signalized official recognition that there was now no difference in the function of the two branches of the cavalry. It i6 unlikely, however, that many regiments, if any, received this sword before leaving for the Crimea; and the great cavalry actions of that war were probably fought with the older pattern swords.
It had at last been realized that all the qualities required for cutting - and thrusting could not be combined in one weapon. The 1853 pattern was primarily a thrusting weapon, and it was so stated in the regulations. At the same time the design allowed for cutting as a secondary function. The blade was straight and thirty-six inches in length. The guard consisted of three bars, of cast iron, and on the opposite side of the sword was a short quillon. ‘The slit for the sword knot was on top of the guard.
The ordinary infantry officer’s sword was improved in 1845. The hilt was unchanged, but the blade was heavier, fallered and without the piping on the back. It was . still slightly curved. Some ten years later there was another change. The blade became a little straighter, and the inner part of the guard was no longer hinged. The design on the guard incorporated the Royal cypher and, in Light Infantry and Rifle regiments, a bugle as well.
A peculiar type of ornamental sword was introduced into the Band and Drums of the infantry in about 1830- It had a short and very curved blade of the type known as Mameluke. The hilts varied in shape and design in accordance with regimental taste. The pommel nearly always figured an animal’s head. The lion was the most often seen, but sometimes a badge of the regiment was chosen. The 17th Regiment, for instance, had the Royal Tiger which had been granted to them as a badge in 1825. The 56th Regiment, which. had been associated with West Kent for many years, bore the Kentish horse. There was no guard other than quillons, and these were straight, curved or counter-curved; and sometimes with brass chains connecting the quillons and the pommel.
In 1854 a new and completely different sword was introduced for the Band and Drums. It had a blade which was longer but less curved than its predecessor and a brass half-basket hilt, incorporating the Royal cypher. Three years later the sword was changed again. Curved blade and half-basket hilt were alike discarded. The new weapon was short and straight in the blade; and the hilt had no guard other than trefoil-shaped quillons. There was a black leather scabbard with brass mounts. For Rifle regiments the hilt was steel, and for other regiments brass. A similar sword, but slightly lighter, was issued to buglers. The only other difference was the absence of a knob on top of the pommel. In 1895 the hilt was simplified and the bugler’s sword was made slightly the heavier weapon. In i goS these swords were abolished.
In 18 56 the sword replaced the musket as the weapon of the infantry Pioneers. The. blade was 22z inches in length, and the back edge was cut as a double-toothed saw. The hilt had a simple knuckle-bow guard. This was probably not the first time that Pioneers had used saw-backed swords, as some seem to have been armed with them in the I 840’s; but this earlier type was not, apparently, official, and may have been made under regimental arrangements.
In 1864 the bowl-shell guard, which had been fitted to the heavy cavalry sword of 1848, replaced the guard with cast-iron bars of the universal cavalry sword of 1853. It had been found that these bars often broke in action, and in any case gave little protection to the hand. The new guard was made of sheet steel and was pierced by four triangular apertures arranged in the shape of a cross. At the same time the blade was shortened by an inch to thirty-five inches, and was curved slightly, presumably to improve it for cutting.
In 1863 an improved pattern of Highland Basket hilt was approved for Scottish infantry regiments. It made no appreciable. difference, however, to the regimental broadsword as a fighting weapon. In fact, later swords of English manufacture were far inferior weapons. Eventually, in 18 7 8, it was decided that basket hilts would have to be removed on active service. The hilt which was consequently approved for wear with Service dress certainly allows the hand full freedom of movement, but the only protection provided is a pair of straight quillons. The basket and cross hilts are made readily interchangeable. The original scabbards had been of black leather with brass or copper-gilt mounts and a chape with trailer. The 1863 scabbard was steel, but the pattern approved later for wear with Service dress and Sam Browne belt was leather. In 1881 the Lowland regiments adopted the Highland pattern broadsword.
A peculiarity in the swords of Scottish regiments is the use of a separate type of hilt for mounted field officers. This is interchangeable with either the cross or basket hilts for dismounted duties, and is lined with buckskin and crimson cloth. The pattern varies with different regiments. In’ The Royal Scots, The Royal Scots Fusiliers, The King’s Own Scottish Borderers and The Gordon, Highlanders the hilt is covered with a design of thistles, and there is a space for the display of the regimental badge. The field officers of The Black Watch, The Seaforth Highlanders, *The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders and The Highland Light Infantry have a differently shaped guard with a scroll design. This hilt was also worn by officers of the heavy cavalry from 1857 to 1896, and by officers of the Royal Engineers from -T-8$7 to -1902- Field officers of The Cameron Highlanders have a separate sword with a three-barred and unlined hilt, which is also worn by officers of the Royal Artillery. The Cameronians have the same sword as other Rifle regiments, though for some years the regimental badge was worn in place of the bugle.
In 188o a new sword was introduced for officers of infantry regiments nts; (other than Scottish). It had a straight blade and a half-basket brass hilt. In 1895 a new hilt was introduced, though the blade remained the same. The hilt was again the half-basket type, but of steel instead of brass. It incorporated a foliated design and the crowned Royal cypher. The following year there was a slight modification: the inside edge of the guard was turned down to safeguard the uniform from damage. The 1896 sword is the pattern worn by officers to-day, not only in the infantry, but in the Royal Engineers, the Royal Signals and other corps.
In 1882 another cavalry sword was produced which had only slight alterations as compared with its predecessor of 1864. The guard was a little smaller and the inner edge was turned down. The sword knot slit was moved from the front to the top of the guard, and the upper part of the guard was raised a little: above the pommel. There was no alteration in the shape and design of the blade, but there were two different lengths: 35-j and 33 inches.
The Egyptian war, which was in progress at this time, brought to light some unsuspected and unfortunate deficiencies in the swords and bayonets of the British Army. There were many reports of blades being broken or bent in action. The fault -was obviously in the quality of the steel; and there was legitimate criticism of the method of testing and inspection. Eventually a Committee was appointed to investigate the matter. Nothing very positive seems to have resulted from its deliberations; but the very fact of the investigation and the evidence which was called must have caused manufacturers to. improve their standards; for no further failure was apparently reported’. In the meantime Enfield was unable to meet the whole of the demand for swords and bayonets, and part of the order, therefore, was placed with German firms at the famous sword-manufacturing centre of Solingen.
The cavalry sword was again modified in 18 8 5. The curve of the blade was slightly increased and made an inch shorter than the 1882 pattern.. In addition, the top of the guard was made level with the pommel. In 18 go a heavier blade was introduced which, except for being thicker, was of the same shape and pattern.
However, in spite of these numerous minor modifications, the old argument as to the type of sword which should be used by cavalry broke out once more: stimulated probably by criticisms resulting from the recent campaigns. The argument was sufficiently intense for the matter to be brought to the notice of Parliament; and, as a result, a .number of experimental swords were made. The arguments were again reflected in the final solution. As in the case of the light cavalry sword of 182o, the cavalry sword of 1899 was suitable for neither cutting nor thrusting; though optimistically intended for both. The blade was reduced in length to 33 inches. The hilt was of the same design as previously, but a slightly enlarged and more bowl’shaped guard gave better protection to the hand. The cavalry regiments which went out to South Africa at the start of the Boer war were armed with either the 1885 or the 1890 pattern of sword; but the unfortunate units in the later reinforcements were issued with the heartily disliked 1899 model.
The obvious failure of the 1899 sword led, in 1903, to the appointment of a Committee to re-examine the problem and to make recommendations for a suitable type of sword for the cavalry. The Committee early decided that the sword must be primarily a thrusting weapon on the grounds that little injury was inflicted by a cut, and that a thrust was always far the more effective. Whereas experience with the light cavalry sword in the Peninsular campaign certainly did not support this conclusion, it was something that the Committee had made up its mind on the purpose which the sword was to serve. However, although numerous experimental swords .were made, all were rejected as unsuitable, and the proceedings of the Committee apparently came to an end.
In 1906 another Committee was appointed; and with such energy did it act that some months later a new sword was ready for trial. In the design of this new model the Committee drew on a wide field of experience. Swords to meet certain specifications were ordered from private firms, and trials were carried out with numerous existing types, both British and foreign.
The firms who were requested to make swords for experi- , ment were Messrs. Wilkinson and Messrs. Mole. It was stipulated that the blade must be 35 inches in length, and have a narrow chisel edge; that the weight should be 2 pounds 6 ounces; that the balance should be between 21 and 21 inches below the hilt; and that the grip should be shaped to ensure that the sword could only be held in the correct fashion.
The existing swords submitted for test were the pre-Boer war cavalry sword of the 18 go pattern; the unpopular model of 1899; a sword which had been adopted for the Household cavalry in x892, with a slightly curved blade 341 inches long and a guard of sheet steel; the French cavalry sword of 1854, which had a straight 381-inch blade and a four-bar brass guard; the French light cavalry sword of 1822, which was a cutting weapon with a curved blade and a three-bar brass guard; the existing sword of the Dutch cavalry; and the light thrusting sword of a Spanish bull-fighter. Apart from these, experimental blades were tried with existing hilts, and to existing blades were fitted grips of various shapes and materials.
The sword which was the outcome of these trials and experiments was the ‘Pattern i 906 Experimental’. This was issued to several units and proved very popular. It had a straight thrusting blade and the so-called ‘pistol’ grip. As a result of the success of this weapon a slightly modified version was approved by the King in igoS for general issue to the cavalry; and this was the last cavalry sword to be designed for the British Army. It was a worthy finish, for it is one of the finest swords ever to have been designed, and it was outstandingly successful in the field in the “First World War. With its straight narrow 35-inch blade it is essentially a thrusting weapon. The guard is of sheet steel, unpierced, and is shaped into a very large and rather ugly-looking bowl, which gives excellent protection to the hand. The pistol grip has been retained, and is so shaped that the hand naturally grasps it in the correct position. The sword is a delight to handle and is beautifully balanced.
