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This I iron was used exclusively in the manufacture of the better firearms; and it may have been its very quality which was responsible for the establishment of a tradition in the production of fine arms antique gateleg drop leaf table . Instead of welding a flat piece of metal into a tube, the Spanish gunsmiths formed a barrel by twisting the metal george iv fabrics . A long flat strip of wrought iron was coiled round a mandrel, heated, and knocked together from the two ends till it formed a solid tube with a spiral weld 19th century english oak urn shaped double pedestal refectory table . An additional Spanish touch was to bore out the barrel to a slightly larger diameter at both the breech and the muzzle ends english early ‘victorian upholstered round . The object of this was to give the bullet more resistance, and hence increased power, at the start of its journey; and then to increase its velocity by giving it greater freedom of movement just before it left the muzzle antique china furstenberg . It seems doubtful whether this Spanish boring added anything to the efficiency of a very fine barrel antique pemproke tables .
The first guns with twist barrels to be made in England were naturally the expensive weapons which were made for private purchase by sportsmen; and this may have happened, J jean dunand fakes vases . N 19th century american rosewood rococo console table . George suggests, some time shortly after 175o painted china cabinets + pictures . The favourite source in England for iron of a suitable quality was the metal salvaged from old worn-out horse-shoe nails doric china/tea sets/longton . This, apparently, surprising choice was due to the fact that the nails for horse-shoes were made out of the best wrought iron obtainable; and were subsequently toughened by pounding over the rocky, boggy or dusty tracks which passed for roadways in the latter part of the eighteenth century antique paper-mache desk . The strips of metal which were produced from this material were twisted in the Spanish fashion; and from the origin of the metal this type of manufacture was known as ’stub twist’ 1920s antique oak refrectory dining table .
THE ARMY’S FIRST RIFLE
The brief appearance of rifled firearms in war has been mentioned in Chapter II painted slant front desk . But for a hundred years after the Restoration the British Army fought wholly with smooth-bore weapons tripod pedestal . It was not till the American War of Independence that British troops encountered rifles in the field, and a halfhearted attempt was made to redress the balance design contemporary dressing table .
In 1747 a remarkable paper was read before the Royal Society by one Benjamin Robins catherine the great of russia plates . It was entitled ‘Observations of the Nature and Advantage of Rifled Barrel Pieces’, and it forms the basis of current thinking on the effect and desigq of rifling british sideboards . Robins was Engineer-General to the Honourable the East India Company, and a very distinguished mathematician kuba rugs prayer .
He explained the difference between a smooth-bored and a rifled barrel in the following terms: ‘A common piece has its barrel smooth on the inside, whereas the rifled piece has its cylinder cut with a number of spiral channels: so that it is in reality a female screw, varying from the fabric of common screws only in this, that its threads or rifles are less deflected, and approach more to a right line: it being usual for the threads with which the rifled barrel is indented to take a little more than one turn in its whole length marquetry patterns flower . The number of these threads in each barrel are different, according to the fancy of the workman, and the size of the barrel; and in like manner, the depth these channels, or rifles, are cut down to is not regulated by any invariable rule, but differs according to the country where the work is performed, or the caprice of the artificer cabriole legs basin .’
Robins pointed out that the usual method of loading a rifle was, after inserting the correct amount of powder, to put a bullet on top of the muzzle which was slightly larger than the bore had been before cutting the rifling antique mahogany round table brass feet with drawer . The bullet was then hammered down with yammer and mallet setobody . He maintained, however, that the sole function of rifling was to spin the bullet, in order to neutralize its inevitable inequalities and thus keep it straight in flight george 11 pad foot dining table . It will be remembered that it was this same theory, on the analogy of the flight of an arrow, which is believed to have inspired Augustus Cotter in his manufacture of the first rifle 1925 antique floding desk .
The contemporary view was that the main function of the grooves of the rifled barrel was to add to the resistance offered by the bullet to the explosion of the powder; and that the spin imparted to the bullet enabled it to bore its way into the target queen ann gate leg table . Robins proved that these theories were quite wrong nursing chair paw . He then went on to show that since the extra resistance of the rifling was not a factor in increasing the power of the explosion, the barrel should be as near smooth-bore as was consistent with spinning the bullet ball and claw tripod table antique . From this he deduced that instead of forcing the bullet in, it was better to have a bullet rather narrower than the bore, and to lay it on a patch of material greased on both sides, which would enclose the bullet and grip the rifling as the two were pushed up the barrel imperial gillow dining table . This method was already used in parts of Germany and Switzerland types of decoration on the shaft of a tea table .
Robins concluded with the following passage: ‘I shall close this paper with predicting that whatever State shall thoroughly comprehend the nature and advantages of rifled barrel pieces, and, having facilitated their construction, shall introduce into their armies their general use, with a dexterity in the management of them, they will by this means acquire a superiority, which will almost equal anything that has been done at any time by the particular excellence of any one kind of arms; and Will perhaps fall but little short of the wonderful effects, which the histories relate to have been formerly produced by the first invention of firearms 16 century antique english tables .’
In Germany rifles had been used as sporting weapons for very many years chippendale dining double pedestal . In 1709 the first group of German immigrants arrived in America, bringing with them a number of these sporting rifles “oliver bernard” pel . Also included in the party were some gunsmiths together with their tools gateleg table antiquequeen ann . The Germans settled down in the Lancaster Valley district of Pennsylvania, and proceeded, amongst other activities, to make rifles marquetry semi-circle drop leaf . The development of their rifles is of interest, for it was responsible for the first introduction of the rifle into the British Army art dec countries .
The German rifle of 1709 was a clumsy weapon pillars on casters . Its calibre varied from ‘75 to ‘875-, and it had a short barrel of from thirty to thirty-six inches antique silver candlesticks . The barrel was too short for the poor powder of the period, which was never fully consumed and consequently fouled the barrel badly telescopic table furniture . The ball was of the tight-fitting variety, hammered in with mallet and yammer chenghua footrims . Performance varied from rifle to rifle and was often erratic, for the type and twist of the rifling depended on the fancy of the maker bugatti oriental style desk .
The rifle which the Lancaster Valley gunmakers evolved from the original ‘Jaeger’ had a bore of 48, a barrel of forty inches in length, uniform rifling and greatly improved balance noritake earlyware . Furthermore, the bullet was of slightly smaller diameter than the bore and smeared with grease or tallow, so that it slid easily down the barrel 16th century english joyned table . In the stock of the louis xvi revival sideboard . rifle was an aperture covered with a hinged flap in which the bullets were stourbridge pink marbled overlaid on opaline glass . kept antique french inlaid dresser .
On a still later version the bore was further reduced to ‘45- inch calibre and the barrel lengthened to forty-two inches cabinet makers marks england . With the longer barrel less powder was required, range and accuracy were improved, and there was considerably less fouling due to the better combustion serpinetine leg table antique oak . The next improvement was the use of the greased patch instead of greasing the bullet porcelain wincanton . This had the effect of filling the grooves of the rifling, so that 16th century english chamber pot .the compression behind the bullet was still greater, and the patch cleaned the rifling swedish bedside tables .
By 1740 the Lancaster Valley, or Pennsylvania, as it came to be known, rifle had become almost standardized inexpensive antiques . The barrel had now an even greater length of forty-four inches; and it was flared at the muzzle and had a slightly choked bore francaise antique . This was the weapon which was used with such effect against the British troops in the War of Independence hepplewhite sofa .
The American troops used their rifles for skirmishing and guerrilla attacks, whilst for close-order fighting the bulk of the infantry were armed, as were the British, with the smoothbore musket english apostle antique teaspoons . Nevertheless the elusive and accurate riflemen formed a valuable arm of the American forces, and they were particularly formidable in broken or wooded country parts of chambersticks .
The British Army had no riflemen of its own to provide a similar harassing and protective screen oriental gated tea tables . Several of the German states, however, included Jaeger regiments, armed with the rifle, in their forces aztec “art deco” rectangle vase . The British Government therefore made inquiries and succeeded in persuading the Landgrave of Hesse to hire a body of his troops antique furniture deutch . The solution, however, was not a happy one 17th century french fashion . The peasant conscripts in the Hessian regiments were largely untrained, and the rifle with which the Jaegers were armed was of very poor quality, and did not stand comparison with the Pennsylvania rifle early 19th century upholstery fabric . It had a short barrel, rifled with six or seven grooves, and an oversize•bullet which was driven in with mallet and ramrod antique console dresser . Its rate of fire was only about one shot a minute, as compared with the two or three shots of the Pennsylvania rifle 16 century chairs caved . It was, in point of fact, very similar to the old original rifles which the Lancaster Valley settlers had brought with them from Germany antique queen anne style burr walnut coffee table .
Captain Hanger, already mentioned as the author of To 111 Sportsmen, was himself an officer in one of the Jaeger regiments; and one of the best rifle shots in England art deco antique dresser . The appreciation of the American rifle which he gives in his book is therefore worth quoting staffordshire flatback fakes . He says:
`I never in my life saw better rifles (or men who shot better) than those made in America antique armchair ardwood anglo . They are chiefly made in Lancaster, and in two or three neighbouring towns in that vicinity, in Pennsylvania de coene art deco . The barrels weigh about six pounds two or three ounces, and carry a ball no larger than thirty=six to the pound; at least I never saw one of a larger caliber, and I have seen many hundreds and hundreds 19th century side tables . I am not going to relate anything respecting the American War, but to mention one instance, as a proof of most excellent skill *of an American rifleman difference between secretaire y bureau a cylindre . If any man show me an instance of -better shooting, I will stand corrected antique british chairs .
`Coloncl, entry dressing table .now General Tarleton, and myself, were standing ,a few yards out of a wood, observing the situation of a part of the enemy which we intended to attack candelabra empire style reproduction . There was a rivulet in the enemy’s front, and a mill on it, t6 which we stood directly with • our horses’ heads fronting, observing their motions antique mantel french clocks 1800 hundred candle set . It was an absolute plain field between us and the mill—not so much as a single bush on it saxony flowers 1700s . Our orderly-bugle stood behind us, about three yards, but with his horse’s side to our horses’ tails kuba rugs prayer . A rifleman passed -over the mill-dam, evidently observing two officers, and laid himself down on his belly, (for it is in such positions they always lie); to take a good shot at a long distance tripod antique folding pie crust table . He took a deliberate and cool shot at my friend, at me, and the bugle-horn man antique dutch coffee trestle table 17th century . I have several times passed over this ground, and ever observed it with the greatest attention and I can positively assert that the distance he fired from, at us, was full four hundred yards antique dealer furniture iron louis xvi .
`Now observe how well this fellow shot sofa carved top rail . It was in the month portuguese trestle tables .
of August, and not a breath of wind was stirring antique bureau writing desk . Colonel Tarleton’s horse and mine, I am certain, were not anything like two feet apart, for we were in close consultation how we should attack with our troops, which lay 300 yards in the wood, and could not be perceived by the enemy lion paw dining room table . A rifle ball passed between him and me; looking directly to the mill, I evidently observed the flash of the powder greek designs and motifs . I directly said to my friend “I think we had better move, or we shall have two or three of these gentlemen, shortly amusing themselves at out expense antique hot water plate warmer .” The words were hardly out of my mouth, when the bugle-horn man, behind us and directly central, jumped off his horse and said “Sir, my horse is shot bureau plat charles boulle .” The horse staggered, fell down, and died lion claw dining table antique .’
In spite, however, of entering upon the American War without any riflemen or rifles at all, the British Army very shortly acquired the best and most revolutionary rifle in the world walnut gaming table with pillar legs . Its inventor was Captain Patrick Ferguson of the 71st Highlanders oak drop leaf gate leg side table . Ferguson commanded the Light Infantry company of his regiment antique brown staffordshire . One of the finest rifle shots in the Army, and convinced of its value as a military weapon, he had designed this rifle to prove his theories gustov klimt chairs . The whole of his company had been equipped with it, probably at Ferguson’s expense, and then trained as a rifle unit carpets oriental .
The great advantage of the Ferguson rifle was that it could be fired at a greater speed, not only than any other rifle, but also than any smooth-bore musket berkey & gay antique chest of drawers lion design . It was a breech-loader, and it was the ingenious loading mechanism which was responsible for its high rate of fire chicken coop shelves .
A plug, a little larger than the bore, was screwed into the barrel behind the chamber and passed from underneath the stock right through to the top, where it fitted flush with the barrel walnut ball claw gateleg table value . When this plug was closed it formed the breech-piece scandinavian wood furniture maker’s marks . It had twelve to fourteen rapid twist threads instead of a single screw thread jan van mekeren . The lower end was attached to a lever which formed the trigger guard english ironstone”, staffordshire . Swinging the trigger guard round laterally for three-quarters of a turn lowered the plug J inch and opened the aperture for loading: the top surface of the plug being now flush with the lower surface of the barrel leopold stickly table 1959 . The bullet was then dropped into the aperture and rolled forward by canting the muzzle downwafds till it touched the lands of the rifling, and the powder poured in behind it antique silver roll top warmer . Pulling the trigger guard back again closed the breech, and the rifle was ready for firing art deco representative artist . The pan was primed by a separate operation after the closing of the breech antique red leather upholstery chair with arm .
The barrel was short compared with Brown Bess, being only 35 inches long edge simplicity tub chair . The bore was 15, and the breech chambered to take a bullet of the same dimensions vintage buttterfly dropleaf tables . The bullet was -thus tight-fitting but not oversize pictures of antique tables and chairs . The rifling consisted of 8 deep grooves, twisting for about three-quarters of a turn in the length of the barrel furniture 19th century . There was a leaf back-sight which was adjustable for ranges from ioc, yards to Soo yards moser antique glass . The bayonet had a flat, single-edged sword blade 25? inches long reproduction mochaware .
In 1776 Ferguson with his company, all volunteers, was ordered to America early 17 centurey gateleg tables . While the men were preparing to embark Ferguson gave a demonstration of the rifle’s capabilities antique walnut dropleaf tables . The demonstration was reported by the Innual Register of June 1776 as follows:
`On the 1st of June, 1776, he made some experiments at Woolwich, before Lord Viscount Townshendj Lord Amherst, General Harvey, D6ragliers, and several other officers with the rifle gun on a new construction, which astonished all beholders http://antcollectors.com/antique-furniture/art-deco-cabinets-and-sideboards-british-walnut-sideboard-burled-maple-console-french-commode-french-side-cabinet-british-sideboard-british-display-cabinet-british-side-cabinet . The like had never been done with any other small arms open and closed dressing table, satinwood, english c, 1800 . Notwithstanding a heavy rain and the high wind-, he fired during the space of five minutes at the rate of four shots a minute, at a target two hundred yards distance chippendale cutlery . He next fired six shots in one minute, and also fired (while advancing at the rate of four miles an hour) four times in a minute furniture ecole de nancy . He then poured a bottle of water into the pan and barrel of the piece when loaded so as to wet every grain of powder, and in less than half-a-minute he fired with it as well as ever, without extracting the ball tall sheffield corinthian column . Lastly, he hit the bull’s-eye lying on his back on the ground, incredible as it may seem to many, considering the variations of the wind and the wetness of the weather vernacular scottish . He only missed the target three times during the whole course of the experiments british sideboards .’
Ferguson’s company sailed for America as an independent corps of riflemen anc clad in rifle green antique drop leaf table wooden hinges . Ferguson himself carried instructions authorizing him to select men from various regiments for training and incorporation in his command pier table empire . The Commander-in-Chief, Sir William Howe, did not, however, take kindly to this new force, and it does not appear that Ferguson was allowed to have much success in obtaining recruits silver apostles spoons .
The corps went into action for the first time at Elk Head on the 25th August 1777 gateleg drop leaf mahogany table . It then covered the advance of Knyphausen’s division to Brandywine antique table wooden hinge drop leaf . During this advance Ferguson, -with three of his men, was apparently carrying out a reconnaissance beyond the British encampment at Kennett Square, when the chance of changing history came within range of the Ferguson rifle paris antique pine dining furniture . The small party heard the sound of horses’ hooves approaching, and dived into cover at the edge of a wide clearing brass skimmer antique . Soon afterwards there rode into the clearing two mounted officers rare tureens . One of them was dressed in a uniform of blue and buff with, on his head, a large headdress described by Ferguson in his notes as a ‘remarkable cocked hat’ “desk”+”antique” . The antique 1920 art deco period pieces walnut china cabinet and buffet .other officer was a Frenchman in Hussar uniform art deco furniture cylinder . To fire, as Ferguson said afterwards, would have been like shooting a sitting grouse; and he and his men remained quietly watching until the pair finally rode off dressing table with porcelain figures . In a report written later, and contained in the Public Record Office, Ferguson said that, dutch walnut cabinet . ‘as I was within that distance at which in the quickest firing I could have lodged a half dozen balls in or about him before he was out of reach george 11 pier gilded table . rectangular dropleaf tables . mahogany chippendale drum table . but it was not pleasant to fire at the back of an unoffending individual who was acquitting himself truly of his duty so I let him alone’ examples of 19th century pennsylvania furniture .
Some time later a wounded American soldier, who was being treated by the British, said that on the day concerned his commanding officer had told him that General George Washington and a French officer were in the neighbourhood jacobean display cabinet . This would include the ar eawhere Ferguson had lain concealed palissy patterns . Other American wounded confirmed that the description given of the uniform of the two officers italian room art-decoration . agreed with that worn by Washington and his French officer in attendance faience porcelaine cri……france .
Ferguson heard of these statements confirming the identity of the man he had spared when he too was lying in hospital after jupe round dining table . the amputation of his right arm ltd edition catteau .
For Ferguson’s unit had been badly hit at the battle of Brandywine trestle library table . In addition to its commander, forty out of its effective strength of eighty had been killed or wounded what kind of base is most stable for drop leaf table? . Whilst he was on the sick list the rifles were withdrawn from the remainder of the company and muskets issued instead antique oak games table . On his return to duty an angry Ferguson had the rifles brought out of store and reissued deco rocket cabinet . The reconstituted rifle corps did gallant service at Stony Point, Long Island, Harlem, White Plains and Dobbs Ferry meissen marcolini group . A particularly valuable characteristic of the Ferguson rifle was that the pattern of breech mechanism allowed the firer to load it lying down decorative spindle legs from antique card table . This made it much easier to remain concealed, and on at least one occasion it resulted in an attack by a far larger American force being defeated william kent staffordshire .
`We pelted at one another till half an hour before day, and then we heard not any noise, but saw light matches upon a wall, which our commanders observing, sent one to discover -whether they had quit the field or not, who brought news that they were gone.
“Tomas my fortune in a direct line to charge their general of horse, which I supposed to be so by his place; he discharged his carbine first, but at a distance not to hurt us, and afterwards one of his pistols, before I came up to him, and missed -with both: I then immediately struck into him, and touched him before I discharged mine; and I’m sure I hit him, for he staggered, and presently wheeled off from his party and ran. … Follow him I did, and in six score yards I came up to him and discharged the other pistol at him, and I’m sure I hit his head, for I touched it before I gave fire … but he was too well armed all over for a pistol bullet to do him any hurt, having a coat of mail over his arms and a headpiece (I am confident) musket proof, his sword had two edges and a ridge on the middle, and mine a strong tuck.’
The tuck which Atkyns referred to was a thrusting sword which was shorter than a rapier.
As a result of the lessons of the Civil War General Monk, in his Observations of 1646, listed the weapons he thought most suitable for the different branches of the Army. These may be summarized as follows:
Horseman—A flintlock carbine, or a musket with a barrel of carbine length, with a substantial stock; a stiff long tuck.
Musketeer—A musket and rest; a scourer to clean the musket; a swinefeather with the head of a rest fastened to it. (This was an iron stake with a point at each end; one to stick in the ground and the other as a defence against horse.)
Pikeman—An i8-foot pike with a small steel head, a stiff tuck, not very long (’For if you arm your men with swords, half the swords you have in your Army amongst your common men will, upon the first march you make, be broken -with cutting boughs’).
FIG. 48. SWINEFEATHERS.
Top: A Swinefeather and its Case.
Bottom: Combined Musket-rests and Swinefeathers.
Dragoon—A flintlock (not a. matchlock) musket (which I hold much better for dragoon service, being upon occasion they may be able to make use of their snaphaunces on horseback, and upon any service in the night they may go undiscovered’); a belt to hang the musket on; a long tuck; a swinefeather.
The Germans concentrated their armour from the start in special armoured divisions comprising a balanced force of tanks, artillery, infantry, engineers, and administrative services. No consideration was given to the idea behind the French and British ‘infantry’ tanks and the doctrines associated with them. The tanks, supported by their own artillery and infantry, were to operate as a concentrated strategic force directed against the enemy’s weakest spots and well ahead of the main, slower, infantry army.
This tank army, trained as a team, consisting of ten armoured divisions by May 9, 1940, contained at all levels a wealth of experience. Many of its officers and men were members of tank units which fought on Franco’s side in the Spanish Civil War. Here they gained battle practice: they tested new techniques and the mechanical capabilities of their machines; and they saw the fate that befell tank forces that were put into battle dispersed in ‘penny packets’. Moreover, intensive peacetime exercises in Germany had been supplemented by the bloodless occupations of Austria in 1938 and Czechoslovakia in 1939. In rapid, long-distance thrusts through these countries, the armoured forces taught themselves essential administrative lessons without having actually to engage in combat.
In September 1939, when the fighting began, the administration worked well and the armoured divisions outfought the old-fashioned Polish army in a matter of days, showing that the quality of the highly specialised, mechanised forces was master of the quantity mustered by the larger, traditional conscript armies. It also confirmed what had been long understood: that the air arm, working in close cooperation with tanks, conferred a powerful element of heavy fire-support on forces operating deep in the enemy rear. The aircraft were in fact a substitute for heavy artillery.
Singers without song
Thus on May 9, 1940, the relative overall condition of the opposing armoured forces can be summarised as follows. The French, saddled with a technique that was 20 years out of date, and with machines operated by men who lacked experience of the pace and scope of modern battle conditions, were partnered by the British, whose techniques were far more up-to-date, but who were attempting to practise them with too few machines, and with a number of officers and men who had not yet had time to grasp the significance of their new role. Indeed, it was this lack of experience that most seriously bedevilled the fighting quality of the Allies. Their armoured formations, either through reasons of policy, doctrine, or lack of machines, had not practised together. Nor was there close co-operation with the air arm in the forefront of the land battle. So they were in fact singers without a song.
Fatally linked with their limited use of tanks was the failure of the Allied command to understand and make adequate strategic preparations to defeat the German attacks when they eventually came. There was a belief, sincerely held, despite warnings from men of practical experience, that some terrains were naturally tank-proof and others could be made secure by the erection of concrete and steel fortifications. It was thought that mechanised armies would not be able to pass through the narrow lanes, forests, and valleys of the Ardennes; that the Maginot Line would be impenetrable, and that the extensions of the Maginot Line along the Belgian frontier, certain inundations, and large built-up areas would also be serious obstacles to tank action.
Therefore the Allies made no elaborate plans for tank counterthrusts in the localities they had classified as tank-proof. The best, mobile armoured portions of the French army were not deployed in a manner permitting them to launch an immediate, concentrated counterstroke —even if their doctrine had envisaged such action. As we have seen, no such doctrine existed and as a result it was quite conceivable —even probable—that the light mechanised divisions and the new tank divisions could be flung in piecemeal (and therefore outnumbered) against superior enemy formations.
Their opponents, the Germans, lacked neither doctrine, equipment, training, nor experience. They were masters of a new war-winning technique that brought speed and mobility to the battlefield. By a combination of speed, thrust, and shock action they could bring a completely new momentum to the battle. The impact of the German armoured divisions could not be compared with that of the basically cavalry- and infantry-oriented methods of the Allies: they had in fact — with their range and striking power —introduced a new dimension to warfare.
Types of tank
Yet inevitably the balance of material was in favour of the Allies, who had more tanks than the Germans and many that were technically superior. In their ten armoured divisions the Germans had only 627 of the good Mark III and IV tanks, armed respectively with a 37-mm and a 75-mm gun, and protected by armour not more than 30-mm in thickness. The remaining 2,060 tanks were lightly armoured machines, mostly armed only with a 20-mm gun — although 381 of these were the sound Czech light T-38, equipped with a 37-mm gun. In addition to the 2,690 tanks with the armoured divisions, there were some 800 machines, mostly light ones, in reserve.
Against this array the French fielded about 3,000 machines, of which 500 were in units in the course of formation, plus older reserve machines. Of these 3,000 tanks, 1,292 were with the light mechanised divisions and the new tank divisions; the remainder were split up among the infantry armies. To this total should be added the British. On May 9 they had in France
210 light tanks in the light armoured regiments, and 100 ‘1′ tanks in the lst Army Tank Brigade. A further 174 light tanks and 156 of the new cruisers, belonging to the Armoured Division, were ready to cross the Channel as the battle started. Thus the Allies could oppose 3,000 German tanks with something like 3,600 of their own — if they chose.
On balance, the quality of the machines possessed by the two sides was about equal. The best French tank, the Char B, mounted the excellent 47-mm gun in a fully rotating turret and had a 75-mm gun mounted in the hull. The 20-ton Somua had a 47-mm gun, too, and was fast. The armour of these tanks was from 40 to 60 mm thick, compared with the best German armour of 30 mm. There were 800 of these new machines and even the older ones compared well with the German lighter vehicles. The 384 light British tanks were certain to be severely outclassed in a stand-up fight, because their guns could not penetrate armour, although their high speed and small size might serve them well when engaged on reconnaissance. But the 100 infantry tanks, of which 23 were the new Matilda, were covered by immensely thick armour (up to 70 mm) and quite safe from the fire of the German tank guns. And the 2-pounder gun, mounted in the thinner cruisers of the Armoured Division and also on the Matilda, was a weapon capable of penetrating any of the German machines at battle ranges.
But while the German and British machines (with one exception) were designed with two- or three-man turrets, the French machines had a single man in the turret confronted with the difficult task of commanding the vehicle, loading and firing the gun, and sometimes controlling the tactics of sub-units. The single British exception was the Mark I infantry tank, and this too presented terrible problems of combat efficiency and command.
This technical factor meant that the German and most of the British crews would be able to fight as teams within the all-embracing organisation of the armoured formations to which they belonged—but would also give the Germans an important advantage when their tank formations clashed with the French. This would make up for the fact that the majority of their tanks were vulnerable to the enemy tank guns, while their own guns would not penetrate the armour of a large proportion of the Allied tanks.
Leadership
The importance of personal command and direction is far more apparent to the fighting man in a climate of military opinion that insists that the generals should remain in the fore-front of the battle, in close touch with the leading tanks both visually and by radio. The Germans practised this method more than the Allies. The French kept their command posts further to the rear in accordance with the practice of 1918, and in any case did not possess a control system suited to high-speed combat. This fact, when combined with the separation of the tank-crew commander from the rest of his crew, would be liable to foster a drop in morale among the French tank units (there is evidence to support this —noted by British tank crews working alongside the French later in the campaign). It was clear, they said, that when faced by German tanks the French crews became cautious and were almost paralysed; and this exaggerated respect for the enemy was a result of the drubbing they had received in their first encounters with the German tanks. Even if the balance of morale between the contestants was equal on May 9, a week later the defects in organisation, leadership, and tactics had swung the scales irrevocably in favour of the Germans.
The overriding superiority of the Germans over the Allies was inherent in their intention to make use of well co-ordinated, massed, all-arms formations, launched into battle at the critical points, commanded by inspired men of vision and determination. Men of the stamp of Guderian and Reinhardt led the armoured corps from the van of the battle (with Rommel leading one of the divisions) — and this wealth of talent could not fail to overwhelm lesser men with old-fashioned ideas. For on the Allied side, none of the generals of 1940 had
• deep knowledge of armoured warfare; with
• startling lack of foresight, those men who had made a study of the subject had been distributed to positions where their talents lay unused. Martel commanded an infantry division; Broad, Pile, and Lindsay had been sent—some say deliberately—to posts unconnected with armoured warfare; and Hobart had been removed from the Active List, though he was ultimately to be recalled. De Gaulle was only just in the process of assembling a brand new and totally inexperienced tank division.
Let it be admitted that men such as these were not easy to live with. They had learned to be ruthless in the face of long-established tradition, that out-dated rules must be broken whatever the personal and immediate consequences, and that these circumstances applied in all armies. Men insufficiently imbued with spirit failed in the face of military ‘vested interests’; those who stood up to them but were unblessed by fortune were removed—as Hobart was; those who fought, and were lucky, followed their stars to success in war in the forefront of the armoured battle.
In 1940, it was the Germans whose spirit and good fortune had combined — and so they dominated. Most of the French armoured commanders were ineffective, and the grossly outnumbered British tank men could not, except on one outstanding occasion, make a decisive contribution.
In numbers the Allies were superior to the Germans; in quality of equipment they were, on balance, about equal; in strategic and tactical application, they were markedly inferior.
The sheer superiority of German armoured technique ensured the certainty of their victory before the frontiers were crossed.
