Shooting the War

The development of the rifle between the issue of the Baker t6 Rifle regiments, and the equipment of the whole of the infantry with the Enfield, is an interesting story myott & sons chamber pot ironstone china. It will be remembered that Ezekiel Baker’s design incorporating a rifling with only a slight twist, together with an easy-fitting and patch-enclosed bullet, had been criticized by Colonel Beaufoy makers names of antique pottery england.
Beaufoy’s theories, which are given in his Schloppetaria of 1808, were widely supported during the period of the Napoleonic wars, and had a considerable influence on the design of the sporting rifles which were manufactured after the end of hostilities drop leaf table with spiral turned legs.
Baker, as has already been said, had designed the weapon which he regarded as best suited to a military purpose; but he had never claimed any great accuracy antique clerk desks. In his Observations he says:
‘ I have- found two hundred yards the greatest range I could fire at to any certainty commode art deco. At three hundred yards I have fired very well at times when the wind has been calm jules leleu display cabinet. At four and five hundred yards I have frequently fired, and have sometimes struck the object; though, having aimed as nearly as possible at the same point, I have found it to vary very much from the object intended whereas at two hundred yards I could have made sure of the point, or thereabouts antique caquetoire chair.’
To Colonel Henry Beaufoy the acceptance of such a standard of accuracy was heresy lenci masks. He maintained that the first requirement in a rifle was accuracy, and that other considerations must be subordinated to this end wash stands for center bowl. No gunsmith disputed the fact that if one increased the twist of the rifling from Baker’s quarter turn to, say, a full turn in the same length of barrel, the gain in accuracy would be considerable antique drawleaf table. ToBeaufoy this proved the case for increased twist; and for a firearm intended for target or competition shooting it would be difficult to say he was wrong czechoslovakian porcelain. But in the case of a rifle intended for the rough business of war, or for the sometimes almost equally dangerous pastime of hunting big game, there were other considerations most expensive antique glass vase.
If the bullet were to be made to spin faster (which was the purpose of a greater twist), it must be a tighter fit in order to grip the grooves of the rifling antique rotating dumbwaiter. This ‘would make it harder, and therefore slower, to load, and the loading of the Baker rifle was already a much slower process than that of a smoothbore musket brass escutcheons shelves. Further, if the explosion of the powder gave the bullet too hard a ‘Punch’, there was a danger that it might not settle into the grooves, and thus strip the rifling paw pottery small candlestick. The charge, therefore, had to be reduced italian immigrant porcelain figures mantelpiece flatbacks. But this gave a lower muzzle velocity, and consequently entailed a greater elevation of the muzzle for a given range victorian kidney shaped dressing table with glass top. The flat trajectory which Ezekiel Baker thought so necessary for troops in action was thus lost 18th century knife boxes.
It is only just to Beaufoy to say that he finally admitted in his own book that the type of rifle he advocated was only suitable for target shooting 19th century mechanical desks. He had found by experiment that the accuracy of the full twist rifle depended on the barrel being cleaned -after every shot, and he was too much -of a soldier not to appreciate that this would be quite impossible in action curule sette federal period antique. Nevertheless Beaufoy’s views had gained such wide acceptance that they governed rifle design for some years, and their author’s ultimate proviso as to their limitations was either ignored or not appreciated edwardian period furniture construction.
The theory of a considerable twist in the rifling was, of course, fundamentally sound 20th century dining table england. The difficulty in putting the theory into practice, however, lay in the shape of 20th century dining table england. the bullet ?????? galles. A round bullet had no depth of contact with the rifling, and therefore even with the tightest fit there was little to hold it to the grooves 1800’s wood dresser with tulip engraving. british meubles.
The advent of the percussion lock increased ‘the difficulties of the gunmakers, for the more rapid explosion increased the velocity of the bullet and the consequent tendency to override or* strip the lands of the rifling regency rent table polygonal. Since a tighter-fitting ball did not provide a solution, the charge had to be decreased again old buen retiro porcelain. In point of fact the charge had to be made so small that the muzzle velocity dropped to the extent that a rifle of the normal bore lost most of its penetration and stopping power fall front timber writing desk. For sporting rifles which were to be used against big game, the gunmakers tried to make up for this loss in velocity by increasing the herculaneum stoneware for sale.size of the bore, and therefore the bullet, so that the actual weight of the ball should make up for its loss in speed tureen hague or amstel. The result was a clumsy and inefficient weapon; and rifles of this type had far less power of penetration than a smooth-bore musket of similar bore greek designs and motifs. It is hardly surprising that the idea of re-equipping the Army with rifles aroused little enthusiasm 1930’s austrian furniture.
Eventually, of course, the attention of designers turned to the bullet in an endeavour to find an answer to the dilemma sarcophagus chests andre-charles boulle. The spherical shape was retained, but different types of projections were formed on the surface which were designed to fit into the grooves of the rifling and so force the bullet to follow its intended spiral path the most common colours of egypt. The most popular of these was the two-groove rifling with a belted bullet which had been adopted for the Brunswick rifle looking for 4 feet wide drop leaf table. The popularity of this system shows that it was at least reasonably successful; but as applied to the Brunswick it was a dismal failure arabisque furniture in ny. Captain Berners, who is credited with the design, must have intended to adapt a proved sporting rifle to military use antique stretcher or refrectory tables. Some writers have said that Berners’ original design incorporated an oval bore; and it may be that the Brunswick as finally accepted was a modified form for which Lovell was responsible n hall norfolk.
The next development, to overcome air resistance and obtain greater penetration with the same charge, was a bullet with a pointed end antique metal table with leaves. This achieved the desired result, but with its comparatively low velocity it had little stopping power; and was-of small use against, for instance, the charge of a tiger small-footed bowls raozhou.
In an endeavour to combine penetration with stopping power experiments were carried out with explosive bullets antique furniture empire chest of drawers. These were of pointed or egg shape, and the main function of the charge in the bullet was to open out its nose on impact and give the same effect as a hit with a heavy round bullet 19th century english george pedestal sideboard. Such a bullet was, in fact, proposed for military purposes by a Captain Norton in 1824; but it was rejected somewhat indignantly by a Board of officers, one of whose reasons was that such a weapon was unfitted for civilized warfare oak revival chair “carved seat”. (It is unlikely, alas, that such a criticism could be levelled against Captain Norton’s bullet to-day giltwood.)
Trials with explosive bullets were carried a stage further in the remarkable series of experiments which were conducted in India by the famous General Jacob, who raised the Scinde Horse and who is commemorated by the town which was named after him, Jacobabad patek philippe, 1930s, rectangular, hinged back.
Jacob first tried to improve the shooting of the Brunswick rifle, and found that a rifling with four grooves instead of two, and a bullet with two crossed belts to fit them, -gave much better results austrian empire furniture style. The East India Company, however, refused to adopt his suggestion that the Brunswick rifles of the Company’s army should be modified accordingly art deco hamilton donald deskey mahogany cabinet.
Jacob, nevertheless, continued his experiments with the bullet to try and obtain even more satisfactory results classical architectural decorative motifs. In order-to get a better grip on the rifling he decided to use an oval ball with projections, instead of a round one french drop front desk. It was well appreciated by gunsmiths at this period that the greater the surface of a bullet which was in contact with the rifling the better the grip would be; and that in fact a long bullet with parallel sides would be infinitely better from this point of view than a round one antique two tier drop leaf table. But the difficulty was that the greater the contact the harder it would be to load the rifle, and it was considered that after a barrel had become fouled with firing it would be impracticable to push down from the muzzle any bullet other than a round one antique silver apostle spoons. Jacob, however, found his oval bullets satisfactory enough to go a stage further; and he produced a fairly easy-fitting cylindrical bullet with a pointed nose and four longitudinal strips to grip the four grooves of his rifling north west antique dresser. His next step was to fit this bullet with an explosive head antique sofa gate-leg table. This so-called ‘rifle shell’ was very popular with sportsmen, though it was rather inclined to explode on impact antique porcelain food warmer. However, the further development of the rifle shell had no influence on military ammunition antique rococo silver candlesticks.
Jacob also had rifles made to his own design plate art nouveau bright colors. They had short barrels of about twenty-four inches, a calibre of ‘577 or -524 inches, rifling of four deep grooves, and one complete turn in thirty inches antiques. None of the rifles was ever officially adopted, but they were used quite extensively in the Indian Army; Jacob’s own regiment, the Scinde Horse, being armed completely with them 18th century porcelain.
The next method of obtaining a grip on the rifling to become popular was by expanding the bullet with the force of the exploding charge are william and mary chest of drawers rare?. The first rifle to be a general issue to the Army embodied this principle 18th century desserts. Although of basically French design, the original inventor of a bullet of this type appears to have been the well-known Newcastle upon Tyne, and later Birmingham and London, gunsmith, W dining room table made from huge clock. Greener italian,furniture,maker,address. Greener’s bullet was oval with a flat base, from which extended a tapered cavity french bronze porcelain and silver inlaid clocks. Into the cavity was inserted a tapered plug, of rather too wide a diameter to be pushed right home escritoire 19th century stinkwood. The bottom of the plug terminated in a flat disc of the same chippendale knife boxes octagon.diameter as the bullet 18th century mass produced tableware. The explosion of the charge drove the plug forward into the cavity, thus expanding the bullet 1930 british chairs. Greener’s bullet was given an official trial in 1836, but was rejected on the odd ground that it was a ‘compound bullet’ large frosted glass reproductions nudes. In 1857, some years after the Government had accepted a rifle based on this very principle, belated recognition was given to Greener’s invention, and in 1857 he was granted the sum of a thousand pounds ‘for the first public suggestion of the principle of expansion, commonly called the Minie’ principle, for bullets in 1836′ vintage three leg table base.
Some years before the period when Greener was trying to get his bullet accepted, Captain Delvigne of the French Army was experimenting on rather cruder lines art nouveau austrian artists candlesticks. Delvigne’s method was to have a chamber of smaller diameter than the barrel, against which the bullet came to rest, and was then expanded at the base by repeated ‘blows from a heavy ram- rod makers of silver table ware in late 1800’s. A bullet so treated was naturally too unsymmetrical to be very accurate in flight painted sideboard pine maryland. In place of this rough treatment, therefore, it was subsequently enclosed in a greased patch, and a tight-fitting wooden plug was inserted between bullet and chamber 1954 antique floor standing ashtrays. Delvigne’s bullet achieved a reputation in a most spectacular fashion in the Algerian campaign-of 1938 french art deco ceramic marks crackle glaze. A battalion of the Chasseurs d’Afrique was equipped by the Duke of Orleans with Delvigne’s rifle and ammunition for service in Algeria under his command antique tables a gibier. On one occasion, when he was out on a reconnaissance, the Duke was annoyed by the provocative gestures of an Arab sheikh some 65o yards away recueil de decorations interieurs. He called out to his escort that he renaissance goldsmith process. would give five francs to any soldier who could shoot the Arab royall naples factory. A Chasseur armed with the Delvigne rifle promptly stepped forward and shot the irritating Arab through the heart art deco antique dresser.
Following another attempt by Colonel Thouvenin to make the bullet expand by hitting it, Colonel Mini6, an instructor at the School of Vincennes, arrived at much the same solution as Greener 19th century porcelain religious figural. Mini6 used a pointed bullet with a hollow base inlaiditalianoccassionaltable. Fitting into this hollow was an iron cup, which was driven forward by the explosion, so expanding the ’skirt’ of the bullet walnut side tables and lowboys. This rifle was immediately adopted by the French Army; and shortly afterwards the British Government purchased the right to use the invention for 42o,000 antique french empire.
The new rifle which was thus introduced into the British Army was entitled the ‘Rifle Musket, Pattern 1851′ empire console pier table. It had a 39-inch barrel, a calibre of ‘702 inch, and a rifling with four grooves which made a complete turn in six feet six inches berkey gay antique furniture. This was a much slighter twist than the Brunswick had rh vase austria. The rifle was sighted up to woo yards brannam pottery. A modification for ‘Sea Service’ was produced by the novel method ‘of rifling with three grooves the ‘768 calibre smooth-bore Pattern 1842 musket italian brass inlay sideboard.
As has already been said, the Mini6 was the first rifle to be adopted for the whole Army, though in point of fact it was superseded by the Enfield long before all units had received it antique bentwood rocking chair. It was an infinitely better arm than the Brunswick, but it was not entirely satisfactory antique italian inlaid buffet. It was first used on active service in the Kaffir war of 1846-52, and all the infantry battalions which left England in 1854 for the Crimea, except those in the 4th Division, were equipped with it vintage chinese porcelain with two swords marked.
The Mini6 rifle had only a short life, as the Enfield, which succeeded it, passed its trials in 1853, and production started immediately 1850s gateleg with butterfly leaf. The Enfield was far in advance of any previous firearms issued to the British Army and gave extremely good service davenport desk mechanism. The barrel was thirty-nine inches in length, the bore ‘577 inch, and the rifling consisted of three shallow grooves which made a full turn in six feet six inches stripped pine washstands kent. Sighting was UP to goo yards antique 5 legged table. There were various modifications of this standard type of Enfield theodore haviland limoges, france pre world war ii solid white body. Carbines were made for the cavalry and other mounted units, and serjeants seem to have carried a rifle with a 33-inch barrel antique drum shaped table. This short barrel had five grooves instead of three, and an increased twist in the rifling which completed a turn in four feet chamber pot and bed table. The additional grooves and greater degree of twist were an improvement, and this walnut marble slab dining. type of barrel was subsequently adopted for all Enfield firearms raoul lachenal france egyptian blue vase. The bullet was hollow based, and later fitted with a tapered boxwood plug prudent francois mallard new york. The boxwood plug was eventually replaced by one of baked clay german buffet furniture.
The production of the Enfield was rather peculiar italy flowers raised antique ceramics. Lord Hardinge, who was then Master-General of the Ordnance, invited the leading gunsmiths of the country to submit samples of their own rifles walnut marble slab dining. The best features of these rifles were then embodied in the new design luxury antique items.
Issue of the Enfield to the troops started before the end of the Crimean war, and it was first used on active service before the fortress of Sebastopol 1800’s reproduction dining room tables.
The Enfield is probably best remembered, unfortunately, as the rifle which was the immediate cause of the Indian Mutiny antique oak gateleg tables. The cartridge was still opened by biting off the end with the teeth; and the rumour was spread that the cartridge was smeared with a grease made from cow’s, fat and the lard of pigs 17th century tea tray. As cows are sacred to Hindus, and pigs are anathema to Mohammedans, the story, if true, would have serious effects on the religious status of soldiers of both classes of the community drapery designs for dressing table. No convincing denial was forthcoming; and, on the other hand, there appeared to have been some evidence, whether true or not, that the allegations were not unfounded silver plated corinthian hexagonal base three light candelabra. The results were disastrous reproduction rococo etagere.
Peculiarly enough, the Enfield rifle was issued to the Company’s army before the Queen’s troops had all received it reproduction mochaware. The result was that when the Mutiny started, although the new rifle was already in the possession of some of the mutinous regiments of the Bengal Army, many of the British regiments, including the 32nd Foot (later the ist Battalion of The Duke of Cornwall’s Light Infantry) who defended Lucknow, still had the smooth-bore muskets of Pattern 184′ - Later arrivals in the country all had the Enfield; and the following extract from the Indian Mutiny Journal of Private Charles Wickins of the ,90th Light Infantry shows the effect of the new weapon:
`We marched on fora few miles, when the enemy again began to show themselves in force on oup right meiji clock. We opened fire on them and, our Enfields being well elevated, we made them move at a distance of 12 hundred yards french oak, “barley twist” chest of drawers.’
Enfield rifles, together with other British rifled and smoothbore firearms, were imported in large quantities by both sides in the American Civil War of i $ 6 z-6$ italian creamware. The Confederate States alone bought 70,980 of the long-barrelled rifles, as well as a number of the short-barrelled variety, and also Enfield carbines, and some specially made officers’ weapons known as `Jeff Davis’ Enfields with checkered stocks and nipple protectors secured by chains mid century decor mahogany rectangle divided tray. In addition’, the armouries of the Confederacy made some copies of Enfields http:  antcollectors.com . One of these, first made at Arkadelphia in Arkansas and later at Tyler in Texas, had a calibre Of ‘54 inch and a barrel only twenty-seven inches long tudor rose design waterfall furniture. This weapon and a copy of an Austrian rifle of similar calibre were collectively known as Hill rifles, and some were marked ‘Hill Rifle Tyler C antique cutlery urns.S burr maple table.’, and others `Texas Rifle Tyler’ inurl:antcollectors.com . Closer copies of Enfield firearms were made by Cook & Brothers of New Orleans art deco upholstery. There were two of these: the 33-inch barrel rifle and the cavalry carbine japanned cabinets.
The latter had a 2 i-inch barrel and a nipple protector attached to the trigger guard by a chain chinese qing porcelains. When New Orleans was threatened by the advance of the Union forces the factory was moved to Athens in Georgia, and some of the arms are marked ‘Athens Armory’ drop leaf carved leg table with drawer. After the move to Athens the head of the firm, F great exhibition of 1851 aesthetic. W antique gateleg table with turned legs. C japanned antique chest-how to strip lacquer. Cook, raised an infantry battalion himself and was killed in action in 1864 drop leaf gateleg coffee table.
Though an excellent weapon for its period the Enfield was found to vary considerably in regard to the performance of individual rifles maryland antique sideboard. The difference was due to slight inaccuracies in the machining of the duncan phyfe drop leaf table.parts shu fu bowls. To try and find 19 century mahogany gateleg table. a remedy, Lord Hardinge, the Commander-in-Chief, in 1854 invited Sir Joseph Whitworth to carry out experiments with bullets and rifling king charles silver flatware. Whitworth was not a gunmaker, but he was noted as an engineer and for his work in precision machining and accurate measurement site:antcollectors.com. It appears that the first approach to Whitworth was made in the hope that he would devise machinery to solve the problem antique spanish talavera. However, Whitworth succeeded in persuading Lord Hardinge that a far more basic investigation was first required antique wood dressing screen ebony and ivory inlay.
In order to enable him to undertake his experiments, a Soo yards’ range was built at Whitworth’s Manchester home, and paid for by the Government prices for antique gateleg table. Since Whitworth had little practical knowledge of firearms, a well-known gunsmith, Westley Richards, was appointed as his assistant, and two Army officers were made available to help in the range tests and to advise on the military requirements “antique meissen porcelain”.
Two years of experiments resulted in the production of a rifle of Whitworth’s own design, which was tested against the Enfield in April 18 57 at the Hythe School of Musketry art deco marquetry plaques uk.
The Whitworth rifle was certainly of unconventional design antique divans. In order to reduce air resistance there was a considerable reduction of the bore; from the ‘577 inch of the Enfield, to a calibre of only -45o inch antique 54 empire table. The most remarkable feature, however, was the rifling late 1800’s dining table european. Instead of the usual grooves the barrel had a hexagonal bore with a twist which increased towards the muzzle modern dressing table designs. The first turn was completed in twenty inches antique spindle leg drop leaf side table. The bullet was of a similar hexagonal shape to the barrel, and was made of a specially hardened alloy rare antique drop leaf dining tables. It was impossible, therefore, for the bullet to override the rifling chinese influence to rococo.
The trial at Hythe resulted in an outstanding success for the Whitworth meissen, four continents. Sir J marcel goupy designs. E lotto design turkish carpet. Tennent reported the shooting of the competing rifles in his The Story of
the Guns, of 1864 rococo silver candlestick. He says:
‘The success [of the Whitworth> was surprising; in range and precision it excelled the Government [Enfield> musket three to one 17th century porcelain figurine. Up to that time the best figure of merit obtained by any rifle at home or abroad was twenty-seven; that is to say, the best shooting had given an average of shots within a circle of twenty-seven inches mean radius, at five hundred yards distance; but the Whitworth lodged an average of shots within a mean radius of four inches and a half from the same distance; thus obtaining a figure of merit of four and, one-half paw pottery small candlestick. At eight hundred yards it superiority was as one to four, a proportion which it maintained at one thousand yards and upwards russian neoclassical secretaire bookcase. At fourteen hundred, yards the Enfield shot so wildly that the record ceased to be kept; and at eighteen hundred yards the trials with it ceased altogether, whilst the Whitworth continued to exhibit its accuracy as before red lion furniture barker brothers los angeles.’
Nevertheless, with all the Whitworth’s remarkable accuracy it suffered from one very serious defect 17th century fashion in europ. Much fouling was accumulated in the recesses of the hexagon bore, which even a metal scraper failed to remove theodore haviland cherry plate. For this reason it was never adopted as a Service firearm; though the Rifle Brigade had it for a short time georgian telescopic silver candlestick.
As a match-shooting rifle the Whitworth was, naturally, a great success art nouveau origins. Its most famous appearance was on the occasion of the first meeting held by the then new National Rifle Association at Wimbledon in 1860 19th century folding breakfast table. The meeting was opened by Queen Victoria, and after the Address and her reply, the Queen went to a pavilion to fire the opening shot holophane verlys. Here there was a Whitworth rifle mounted on a rest and sighted on to a target 400 yards away french art carved inlay buffet. The Queen pulled a silken cord attached to the trigger and the bullet hit the target within one inch of the dead centre italy flowers raised antique ceramics. The iron plate with the mark of the Queen’s bullet on it has been retained at Bisley in commemoration of the event chelsea moons porcelain.
The Whitworths saw their share of active service, for a number were purchased by the Confederate States of America from the Whitworth Rifle Company of Manchester iranian brass oval trays. Presumably some of the hexagonal bullets were supplied as well, and perhaps owing to the Federal blockade it was impossible to replenish them what decade era antique inlaid diamond harlequin. At any rate the Southern troops seem to have used ordinary cylindrical hollow-based bullets without appreciable loss of accuracy 2009 chinese porcelain antique. The Union Generals Sedgwick and Lytle are said to have been killed by Confederate marksmen using Whitworths regency occasional table.
A very unusual rifle, the Lancaster, was adopted for limited use in the Army in 1855 1940’s english dresser   table clock. This was derived from a sporting rifle made by Charles William Lancaster of 151 New Bond Street in London rousseau shagreen. Its most striking feature was the complete absence of the normal grooves to provide the rifling secretaire desk antique. Instead Lancaster used a smooth barrel of slightly oval bore; or, to look at it in another way, two round and very wide grooves opposite each other antique dressing table with mirror and knee hole. The bullet was cylindrical with a conical nose and was made of soft lead meissen, clock, marcolini. The explosion of the charge forced this soft bullet to take up the shape of the rifling, giving a very close fit dark silver candelabra.
As a military weapon, the Lancaster was first issued to the ist Battalion The Rifle Brigade for experiment, and was used on active service in the Kaffir war late 1800’s dining table european. It was ultimately adopted as the firearm of the Corps of Sappers and Miners antiques trends 2009. The final Army version of the Lancaster had a A-inch barrel with the same bore of ‘S77 inch as the Enfield 1850s gateleg with butterfly leaf. The oval bore had a twist which increased towards the muzzle, and completed a full turn in six feet six inches pillars on casters. To avoid complications in ammunition supply it was used with the Enfield cartridge leleu furniture.

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MINIATURES
WHEN, during the last ten years of his life, Holbein painted a series of small circular portraits in opaque watercolour on vellum, he was not so much inventing a new art-form as giving authority to one which had been in the process of evolution for some time. Miniature-portraiture, as we know it, can trace its ancestry to two separate traditions: the tradition of the illuminated manuscript, which flourished in this country and on the Continent throughout the Middle Ages, and the tradition of the portrait-medal, which had its origin in Roman times and was revived in the Renaissance. The fusion of these separate traditions can be seen in the attempts of artists in the latter part of the 15th century to produce small painted portraits which united the portable quality of medals and the jewel-like colour of illuminations. But it was not until Holbein brought his consummate genius to the problem that the tradition can be said to have been firmly established. In a space of a few years Holbein brought to perfection the experiments of his immediate predecessors and set a standard for all those who came after him.
Holbein’s miniatures – or ‘limnings’, as they were called – all belong to his second visit to England: that is, to the period between 1532 and his death in 1543• According to the most recent authorities, not more than a dozen of the limnings sometimes attributed to him can be accepted as authentic; of these the two most readily accessible to the visitor (the Anne of Cleves and the Mrs Pemberton in the Victoria & Albert Museum) are of superlative quality. The characteristics of Holbein’s vision and technique were a minute sensitivity of draughtsmanship, an intense and glowing colour and a completely unflattering psychological penetration into the personality of his sitter. This detailed concentration he combined with a largeness of conception and design which gives a paradoxical monumentality to portraits which average little more than an inch in diameter.
After Holbein’s death there was a short period during which it may have seemed that his challenging example was not to be taken up. But with the maturity of Nicholas Hilliard (1547-1619), any doubts for the future of the art were triumphantly laid to rest. For just as Holbein in his miniatures and his other portraits had preserved for all time the outward appearance of the court of Henry VIII, so Hilliard’s miniatures became the perfect visual counterpart of the age of Elizabeth I. Hilliard was the son of an Exeter goldsmith, and though his work naturally reflects the influence of Holbein and, to a lesser degree, that of other Continental artists, it remained, essentially English. While sharing Holbein’s absorption in the character of his sitter, Hilliard shared with the leading spirits of his age that curious quality which can best be described as a kind of half-frivolous melancholy – the quality which is most familiar from some of Shakespeare’s sonnets. Though it is more evident at some times than at others, this complicated and characteristic sentiment is never far to seek in his miniatures. Hilliard is perhaps best known as the portraitist par excellence of Queen Elizabeth, and from 1584 he was granted the monopoly of the Queen’s portraits ‘in little’. Although lie lived far into the reign of James I, his best work belongs to the Elizabethan period.
Hilliard’s pupil Isaac Oliver (d. 1617) is often spoken of as his rival; in a purely worldly sense he probably was so. But we can now see that the personalities and the achievements of the two artists were quite dissimilar. Though his earlier works may often be confused with those of his master, from about 1590 onwards Oliver developed a vision new to British art. The dramatic lighting which he increasingly brought to bear upon his subjects was, in fact, a reflection of the type of lighting adopted by his Flemish contemporaries in oils, and the naturalism of his modelling can be traced to
the same source. Nevertheless, Oliver was a perfectly inte-
grated artist, and external influences never disfigure his works in their crude state. Just as Hilliard found his ideal milieu in the Elizabethan court, so Oliver found in the court of James I a field of expression for which his talents were by nature adapted. A Huguenot by birth and cosmopolitan by temperament, he also proved an excellent filter through which Continental influences could reach this country.
Both Hilliard and Oliver had sons who practised their fathers’ art. The next important miniaturist to be considered, however, is neither Peter Oliver nor Laurence Hilliard but John Hoskins, an artist who was roughly their contemporary. Hoskins was born in the 159os, and his earliest signed works, which belong to the 1620S, show a natural and attractive development from the art of Hilliard rather than of Oliver. But from the 1630s, when Van Dyck settled in England, a change is seen to come over his work, and Hoskins’ great historical importance consists no less in his becoming, as it were, a diminishing-glass for Van Dyck’s large-scale innovations in English portraiture, than in his carrying on the classic tradition of his predecessor. For a short time the influence of Van Dyck seems to have unsettled Hoskins’ style, but gradually he absorbed and digested it, and the miniatures of his maturity — that is, from about 1635 until his death in 1665 — show an entirely satisfactory fusion of his natural English vision with the baroque qualities of Van Dyck.
Hoskins had two nephews who were brought up under his `care and discipline’. These were Samuel and Alexander Cooper, the first of whom was to become the greatest English miniaturist, if not the greatest English portrait-painter on any scale, of his century. He was born in I 6og and died in 1672. It seems almost certain that his uncle was his teacher as well as his guardian, and it may be that some of his earlier works have become confused with those of the older man. There are, however, a few miniatures by Cooper which can be assigned to the 163os, and from 1642 until his
death there is a coherent body of signed work on which to base our estimate of his achievement. In technique Cooper brought a new freedom of brushwork into miniature-painting. He also introduced a new system of lighting, whereby a single source of illumination threw the modelling of his subject into striking relief. But such technical devices were developed not so much on their own account as in order to assist what seems to have been Cooper’s major preoccupation – the expression of character. In this he was pre-eminently successful; his portraits of Oliver Cromwell, Catherine of Braganza and the young Duke of Monmouth, which cover the range from severity to youthful grace, are among the great European portraits of the century. During the last ten years of his life Cooper was limner to Charles I I, and his high reputation extended far abroad. His elder brother, Alexander, was also a miniaturist. His career is less well documented than that of Samuel, but he is known to have worked much on the Continent, in Holland, and at the court of the King of Bohemia, and h~ is said to have died in Stockholm in 166o. His works are rare but excellent, though he does not seem to have developed along the fully baroque lines of his brother.
Of those who followed the lead of Samuel Cooper the most distinguished artist was Thomas Flatman (163588), who was also a barrister and a poet of some repute. His earlier miniatures, belonging to the 166os, are very much dependent on Cooper. But during the last twenty years of his life a personal brilliance comes into his work, along with a further loosening of brushwork, which enable us to see in him a genuinely original artist. The miniaturists R. and D. Gibson, who may perhaps have been father and son, also reflect many of the same influences and are to be included among those who take their cue from Cooper. This is not so, however, of Nicholas Dixon, who was appointed Court Limner after Cooper’s death. Neither his date of birth nor of death is recorded, but his earliest works belong to the  and he is known to have been still living in 1708. In
style Dixon shows little or no dependence upon Cooper, springing, it seems, directly from Hoskins. In vision, however, he came strongly under the influence of Lely’s mannerisms, and this may perhaps help to account for a gradual deterioration in his work.
The miniaturist Lawrence Crosse (d. 1724) was roughly the contemporary of Kneller. He may perhaps have been the son of an earlier miniaturist, P. Cross, who was the first in England to introduce the technical device of occasional stippling, instead of drawing throughout with fine continuous brush-strokes. Lawrence carried this technique even further, and as a result his miniatures have a characteristically powdery appearance which is most attractive. At his best he was very good indeed, and his work forms a fitting conclusion to the first great period of miniature-portraiture in England.
At the beginning of the 18th century portraiture seemed to be suffering a decline, and the art of the miniaturist, no less than that of the full-scale oil-painter, reflected this. The fact that the moment coincided with the introduction of a radically new technique can hardly be said to have simplified the miniaturist’s problem. Up to this point miniatures had continued to be painted in essentially the same way: that is, in more or less opaque water-colour on vellum. But about 1700 the use of ivory was introduced as a base; the introduction is credited to Rosalba Carriers, the Venetian pastellist and miniaturist. The aesthetic advantage of ivory over vellum is that it gives superior luminosity. But in order to exploit this to the full, transparent pigment would have to be used throughout; and during the first part of the century this fact was not realized. Thus, when we look at them from the standpoint of history, the miniatures of Bernard Lens (1682-174o) and of his sons, Andrew Benjamin (1713 ?–after 1779?) and Peter Paul (1714 ? 50?), may perhaps seem unsatisfactory in their somewhat uninventive use of their new medium. Nevertheless, mini-atures of the Lens school have a certain stolid charm, and their literalness of vision, which might easily become pompous if enlarged to the full scale of oil-paintings, has made them attractive tokens of the somewhat stolid society which they mirrored. Contemporary with Bernard Lens was the enamellist C. F. Zincke (1683?-1767), who continued with enormous success the craft which had been perfected in the previous century by Jean Petitot (1607-91).
About the middle of the 18th century the primness of style which we have remarked in Bernard Lens began noticeably to relax, and we find a group of miniaturists at work whose qualities have for too long been underrated. The main characteristics of the miniatures of this period are a smallness of size and an understatement of effect. These qualities have led Mr Graham Reynolds, the most recent writer on the subject, to name them ‘The Modest School’. Such artists as Gervase Spencer (d. 1763), Luke Sullivan (1705-71), Nathaniel Hone, R.A. (1718-84) and Samuel Cotes (1734—r818) all worked mainly within this idiom during the period in question. Although none of them achieved the lightness of touch and the rococo brilliance which was to result from the looser draughtsmanship of their followers, they were capable of a delicacy and a naturalness beyond the scope of their immediate predecessors.
The last thirty years of the 18th century produced the climax of excellence in the miniature painted on ivory. That this period coincided approximately with the great epoch of English portraiture in oils can be held only partly responsible for the efflorescence; for although it would be absurd to maintain that miniature-portraiture pursued its own path independently of large-scale portraiture, nevertheless the greatest miniature-painters, such as Hilliard, Cooper and several who are about to be considered, produced a consistent series of works which can be judged solely on their own merits. It would be truer to say that the same impulse which lay at the root of a flourishing school of oil-portraiture, quickened also the school of miniaturists.
The first miniature-painter in England to embody the later 18th-century virtues was Jeremiah Meyer, R.A. (1735-89), a German who came to England in 1749. He received some instruction in enamel from the elderly Zincke, and began to exhibit in the 176os. From the early 177os he was painting in perfectly transparent water-colours on ivory, and in this medium he developed a linear delicacy and brilliance which had previously been impossible. The result was a remarkable subtlety of modelling and an increased sensitivy of effect in such features as the flesh and hair of his sitters. The fact that an exaggerated heightening of female coiffures occurred during the 1770s may help to account for an increase in the size of miniatures at this time. The miniatures of Meyer were among the earliest to embody this trend. His works are seldom signed, but they may be recognized both for his personal calligraphy of draughtsmanship and for his predilection for pale lavender tints.
Richard Crosse (1742-1810) might appear to represent a transitional stage of development between the innovations of Meyer and the fulfilment and later degeneration of the school, if it were not that his works normally achieve a realization of intention which is complete. Like Meyer, he painted in enamel as well as in water-colour, and, like Meyer, he was master of a calligraphic style of great delicacy. Perhaps the most evident feature of his practice is the greenish-blue colouring which usually pervades his portraits. Crosse exhibited with success from 176o, but during the last twenty years of his life his output steadily declined in quantity.
There follow the three best-known miniaturists of the late 18th and early 19th century. Richard Cosway, R.A.
(1742?-1821), John Smart (1741?-1811) and George
Engleheart (1750-1829) were all of the same generation, and, although their styles were quite distinct, they are normally considered together to form the dominating influence in the late Georgian miniature. The early works of each of these artists already reveal minor mutual diver-genes, and from about 1780 their personal characteristics
were fully formed. Cosway, the best known of the three, obtained the patronage of the Prince of Wales, and the delicate bravura of his manner can be readily associated with the temperament of a fashionable portrait-miniaturist such as he rapidly became. Cosway’s mature miniatures show a striking economy of colour and a sensitive dash of draughtsmanship that tempted many indifferent imitators. The works of his finest period, however (roughly 1785-1805), were, in fact, inimitable and stand amongst the most excellent of the century. Cosway virtually never signed his miniatures on the front, though he often wrote an elaborate Latin inscription on a piece of paper at the back. Thus, miniatures purporting to be by Cosway which have initials or a signature on the front are in the highest degree suspicious.
John Smart, who was Cosway’s approximate contemporary, was master of a very different style. Unlike Cosway, he was not fitted to scale the pinnacles of fashion, and the subtle, meticulous manner which he developed in his earlier works remained his medium of expression for the rest of his life. Smart’s miniatures are nearly all signed on the front with his initials, and dated; and those miniatures which he painted during his ten years’ sojourn in India, between 1785 and 1795, are distinguished by the addition of the letter ‘F. Such systematic habits of documentation are perfectly in accord with his temperament as expressed in his work. His miniatures have a striking charm when one first approaches them – a charm of colour, finesse and elegance – but their hardly varied smoothness and relative lack of characterization reflect a certain prosaic and generalizing quality of vision. A single miniature by Smart produces an immediate and delightful effect, whereas a large group tends to emphasize their sameness. Nevertheless, his exceptional technical accomplishment and his never less than charming gifts entitle him to his place near the head of his profession.
George Engleheart was a few years younger than Cosway and Smart. In his youth he worked for a time in Reynolds’ studio, and his earlier miniatures retain something of the vision of his master, as well as many of the technical characteristics of the ‘Modest School’. During the 1780s, however, he arrived at the distinct and personal style of his middle period, a style which was typified by a brittle and crimped manner of drawing hair and drapery, no less than by the emphatic concentration of the eyes and the effective illusion of a third dimension. Many of Engleheart’s best works belong to this period. Before the end of the century, however, he had developed his third and final manner. The size of his ivory and the scale of his forms increased, and, although his technical excellence remained with him until he died, there is noticeably less distinction of imagination in these later works.
It is impossible here to do more than mention even a very small proportion of those miniaturists of the late 18th century who were contemporaries of, or slightly younger than, the three leading artists just considered. It was a time in which patronage of this art reached its highest intensity, calling forth a multiplicity of minor artists whose individual styles are often difficult to disentangle. Of these, one should first mention Ozias Humphry, R. A. (174.2-1810), who was on occasion capable of reaching the highest contemporary standards; of roughly the same generation, and often met
with, are Samuel Shelley (1750?-1808) and Edward Miles (1752—r828). The brothers Andrew (1763-1837) and Nathaniel (d. 1822 ?) Plimer had considerable reputations in their day, and are still highly esteemed by some collectors. The enamel tradition of Zincke was carried on to the end of the century by Henry Spicer (c. 1743-1804), amongst others.
During the first thirty years of the 19th century some fine miniaturists emerged; but one can also detect in their work the beginnings of a rapid decline in the art. Contemporary taste called for ever larger miniatures and a new solidity of manner ‘founded upon the Great Master’s works’, by which was unfortunately meant the great masters of oil-painting. Works satisfying these conditions were supplied in increasing quantities by the artists who succeeded Cosway and Engle-heart. Such artists as Andrew Robertson (1777-184.5) and Sir W. C. Ross, R.A. (1794-1860) were able to retain some of the essential linear quality which can be seen at the basis of the art of all our great miniaturists, but gradually the art began to succumb to a surfeit of rich colours, gummed Shadows and inappropriate forcefulness. It needed only the invention of photography to deal the final blow.
The literature of British miniature-painting is not a very extensive one. Full bibliographies are contained in two essential books, B. S. Long’s British Miniaturists (London, 1930) and Graham Reynolds’ English Portrait Miniatures (London, 1952). Although foreign miniaturists do not come within the scope of this contribution, Ernst Lemberger’s Meister-miniatures aus Fiinf 7ahrhunderten (Stuttgart, 1911) may be mentioned as providing a helpful introduction to this wider subject.

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MAPS
I F you choose to surround yourself, to whatever extent, with examples of the beauty to be found in the almost limitless products of craftsmen of the past, maps, not less than other works of art, will provide decoration, interest and often pieces of high artistic merit. This article does not attempt a history of cartography, for there are several excellent published works Which will guide the collector with authority; but some of the names and styles which are most frequently met, and some of the terms used, are here set out. English map-makers have reached their own peculiar heights of achievement, but the influence of Continental styles and cultures has been both felt and reflected. The rise of national schools or tendencies in map-making accompanied an ascendancy in maritime affairs. Sea-power and the consequent prospering of seaborne trade have a close bearing on the production of both land maps and sea charts. Ocean voyages of discovery, embarked upon by thriving and questing peoples, brought forth pictures, cartographic pictures, of new lands and new seas.
We may leave aside technical considerations of surveying, which were often not of paramount importance nor of remarkable accuracy, even into the 18th century. The processes by which maps were reproduced are one of their most interesting aspects, and much of what has been said in this Encyclopaedia relating to prints and books is applicable here. Many maps found by collectors today have come from books, either as illustrations to a text or from an atlas; a sobering thought that so many handsome volumes have been broken up. However, without it the beauty, interest and consequent pleasure of their contents would necessarily have been lost to thousands of people. Some-times, it is true, the books themselves were nothing but collections of maps by different engravers and publist-ers, so perhaps from one point of view the process is not without a certain reason. The names of engravers and publishers as well as of cartographers and surveyors are all signposts to the collector; indeed these functions were frequently combined by one individual.
PROCESSES
Manuscript maps, the beginning of everything in this field, are a special study; their discovery is a matter for consultation with the expert.
Engraved maps: the copperplate, taking the ’scratch’ of the craftsman’s graver, is the chief means by which maps were reproduced. The etched line, bitten into the plate by acid and having its own qualities, was also used, but to a lesser extent. In the r9th century lithography (printing from stone) was used, while the advent of steel in place of copper for engraving generally, although resisted by some craftsmen, was also applied with success to map-making. The woodcut, a reversal of the engraving process, in which the ink was carried on the surface left standing and not in the groove left by the tool, was the other important early medium. The quality of the woodcut is recognized in a heavier, less flexible line and a more compact or sculpturesque treatment of ornament. The block leaves no impression of its dimensions on the paper, whereas the copper plate, its edges rounded off to prevent tearing, leaves a shallow depression in the paper as it passes through the press. This depression is known as the plate-mark, the presence of which is a guide to the beginner that the map is in the first place printed and secondly that it is complete.
Beyond the plate-mark, the margins or spare paper are generally preferred as large as possible, for apart from setting-off the engraved surface of the map, they are some indication that it is in a reasonably unspoilt state. Though desirable, wide margins are neither essential nor inevitable, and a scarce map trimmed to its border or with very small margins is not to be passed by. The possibility of acquiring the better example is present in the minds of all collectors, not only of cartophiles. Within the plate-mark is the border, confining the detail of the map itself. From a single line, on some examples, the border may vary in others to an elaborate pattern in imitation of a carved picture frame. Within the border may occur a scale of miles or of units of latitude and longitude, although other uses such as a numero-alphabetical system for map references are to be seen. It should also be remembered that longitude, in times past and in other countries, has been measured from several places other than the now familiar Greenwich.
The folding of maps of large size into a volume of smaller dimensions can have caused wear, which is not a bar to good condition unless of serious extent. The way in which double-page maps were hinged to a stub of paper in the binding of a book and not sewn in, enabled them to lie flat, and has had the admirable effect of preserving them whole to this day.
To return to the inner surface, ornament, reflecting all the styles and decorative fashions of its period, and one of the attractive features of maps as a whole, is found on the title. This sometimes contains in addition to the necessary descriptive details, particulars and place of publication (the imprint) and the date, although the last is frequently ommitted, adding to the interest of the collector and sometimes to his undoing! These details are usually enclosed in a cartouche, perhaps architectural, in imitation of carving or drapery. Scenic titles or figure pieces give some of the most interesting and decorative additions to the purely topographical features. Insets such as descriptive notes, armorial bearings, views, town-plans or ‘close-up’ details on a large scale, are other points of embellishment. Vignettes occur in the form of land and sea battles, shipwrecks, beasts, sea-monsters and families of mer-folk; also groups of inhabitants pursuing their occupations and practising their customs. The Scale, sometimes comparing various measures of distance, is frequently the subject of artistic elaboration too. The Compass Rose, with its own long history of design, is a necessary feature, for the orientation of a map was not always with north at the top.
The wide use of Latin for the titling especially of early maps, gives often in abbreviated form, the ‘Sculpl.’ or ‘Fecit’ of the engraver, the ‘Delin:’or’Inven1.’ of the draughtsman, and the ‘Excud:’ ‘Apud’ or `Sumptibus’ of the publisher. The Lettering employed, apart from its obvious function of identification, has an important decorative part to play. Gothic, italic and Roman, plain and flourished, handsomely tailed or classically serifed, they are found to have a considerable effect on the surface pattern; the choice of certain styles and sizes of letter to denote particular features had early been made. In later times a marvellous variety of lower-case as well as capital letters ‘hollow’, ’shadow’, upright and italic, not to speak of several sorts of scripts, were the visual vocabulary of the map-maker.
The stages in the reproduction of a map are of importance from the time the first proof is taken. Two copies of what is seemingly the same item can, on inspection, reveal differences of greater or lesser extent, by which it is often possible to date them. Since the life of a copper plate was frequently surprisingly long and its ownership diverse, the range of possible variations is wide.
Colour is a matter of great interest and importance, for while the engraving was black and sharp on the white paper when it came off the press, and it was sold in that form, a large part of the map-seller’s business was the colouring of his wares. There are preferences today for the uncoloured specimen, but good original colour is so much a distinctive period feature that understandably it greatly enhances the value of many types of map. The specialist who applied pigment to the map, following certain time-honoured conventions, gave us those glowing, exciting and perhaps vivid effects which are a feature of ‘Contemporary Colouring’. Old maps are coloured for sale today, often in skilful imita-tion of the proper styles. Colour which has been along time on the paper will have made a darkening stain right through ; some tints, green in particular, have had a corrosive effect which now renders the map brittle where it was applied. The actual pigment used to colour early maps was often more or less opaque, concealing the engraving, and the way in which it was applied was frequently more spirited than meticulous.
MAKERS, ENGRAVERS AND PUBLISHERS
The names which form a monumental foundation for this subject are still to be encountered in the map-seller’s on terms of comparative familiarity. The great ones of cartography are still attainable by the humble collector, the Old Masters here being far less the companions of rich collectors than in almost any other branch of the Arts.
CLAUDIUS PTOLEMY of Alexandria, who worked in the 2nd century A.D., was brought to light again in the Renaissance, when an edition based on surviving manuscript copies of his Geographic, with maps, was published (Bologna, 1477). These maps were printed from copper plates, but some of the most famous early editions of the same book came from Germany, notably Ulm, 1482, and Strasbourg, 1513, in which they were printed from wood blocks. Here we have the two schools almost typifying the cultures on either side of the Alps. Ptolemy, with modern additions, was much reprinted and edited in both countries; here is the world as understood by the Ancients, approximate but recognizable, and with it visions of new continents as yet unexplored.
In Italy, the map-sellers of Venice and Rome, such as Forlani and Lafreri, produced maps ranging from continents in several sheets to small ones of islands on a single leaf, all from copper plates. They gathered together selections of the works of their competitors and contemporaries, into volumes of maps which were the forerunners of what we mean by the term Atlas, although that word was first used to personify a collection of his own maps in 1585, by Mercator, whose title-page showed the mythical king. The Italia of G. A. MAGINI (Bologna, 162o), which contains some plates from the hand of Benjamin Wright, an English engraver working on the Continent, presents a detailed series of elaborate maps of the country with crowded topographical pictures and but little added embellishment. Round about the end of the 17th century, Venice was the scene of the remarkable activity of M. V. CORONELLI (1650-1718), Cosmographer to the Republic, who conducted the Academy called Gli Argonauts and produced maps of a grand and ornamental nature.
One of the most important names in cartography, and probably the most generally familiar, GERHARD MERCATOR, lived from 1512 to 1594, and his Atlas Sive Cosmographicae Meditations (1585-95) contains the work of one who had been an instrument maker and an authority on the italic script in which he inscribed the place-names, as well as a draughtsman and engraver. The map-makers of the Netherlands were a closely knit fraternity, and it is of interest and importance to note how their stock-in-trade was passed from father to son and from publisher to successor. This is why the same map may carry several different imprints at various times; the plate was handed over to a new proprietor, and a new name and date appeared. As the plates wore, the lines were strengthened, new information was included and often a new dedication to some more recent notability replaced the older. Mercator’s business passed to sons and grandsons, but soon after 1600 it went to JODOcus HONDIUS (1563-1612), who had spent some ten years of exile in England. He published further editions of Atlas, with his own contributions, and his son Henricus also continued the work. Another famous name was brought into the business by marriage, in JAN JANSSON (15961664), who became Henricus’ brother-in-law and took control in about 1657.
ABRAHAM ORTELIUS of Antwerp (1527-98), friend of Mercator, collected from many sources and used the work of most of the known figures of cartographic and geographic repute. Having begun as a colourer and map-seller, he produced in 1570 his great Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, a step nearer the atlas of uniform maps which we know today. Some examples, particularly when in original or near-contemporary colouring, are among the most highly evocative of the spirit and decorative style of that age. The names Of FRANS HOGENBERG the engraver and GEORGE BRAUN his editor are linked in their wonderful Civitates Orbis Terrarum, published at Cologne between 1573 and 1618. The six books contain several hundred plan-views of important cities, many including costume figures, coats-of-arms and scenes of historical incidents, which make the series a valuable work of reference; the individual plates, which are reasonably common, are a source of more than ordinary interest. One of the links between our native map-makers and these great names on the Continent occurs here, for Frans Hogenberg, who was also responsible for putting on to copper the maps of Ortelius, had a brother Remigius who came to England and contributed nine of the plates to Saxton’s atlas.
Early maps of England were manifestly unsuited for the comings and goings of the Elizabethans, and the peril in which this country stood from foreign invasion hastened the realization that better surveys were needed. GEORGE LILY, another English exile abroad, had produced the first engraved map of Britain in two sheets printed at Rome in 1546; also Mercator had a map of England and Wales in 1564, and Ortelius included maps of England and Wales in his 1573 edition and later. It was, however, CHRISTOPHER SAXTON, a Yorkshireman, who proceeded under the Queen’s mandate to make his survey of the counties of England and Wales, and so produce the first collection of its kind in the world. The results, to the extent of thirty-four county maps and one of the country in general, appeared between 1574 and 1579, and were engraved by Nether-Landers like HOOENBERG and TERWOORT, and by Eng
lishmen like AUGUSTINE RYTHER, another Yorksbireman. The latter’s signature carried the qualification ‘Anglus’ to differentiate between the true-born English, of whom his contemporaries and we, too, have every reason to be proud, and on the other hand the Dutch and Flemish masters from whom we learnt. In style, however, there is little such difference. While a complete Saxton atlas is now something of a rarity, and maps from it in contemporary colouring are not exactly cheap, they are still obtainable. The graceful and sometimes elaborate script used is an ornament in itself; the Latin titles within their cartouches of fruit, flowers and bird-life, the Queen’s arms with the fleurs-de-lys and the Tudor dragon, give us the England of nearly four hundred years ago in spirit as well as name and appearance. The late Edward Lynam wrote: ‘Saxton deserves a place beside Shakespeare as an interpreter of the national consciousness, unity and pride which were the greatest achievements of Elizabethan England’ (British Maps and Mapmakers).
Saxton’s plates, in the hands of PHILIP LEA (d. c. 1700), who made considerable alterations, had a new lease of life, and later appeared under the Bowles’s name, also under that of Sayer (1763). Lea was a busy cartographer, globe-maker and publisher who also constructed and sold instruments.
Use was made of the word ‘Theatre’ for a display of maps, by JOHN SPEED (1552-1629), who in 1611 issued the renowned Theatre of the Empire of Great Britain. This bore similarities to Ortelius’ 71eatrum besides its title. Speed cast wide for his sources, and acknowledged the fact on many of his plates, which were engraved not in England but by Jodocus Hondius in Amsterdam. The book was a great commercial venture, not sheltered by royal or noble patronage, but well justified by its popularity, which called for many editions in the succeeding century. The maps, favourites today among collectors, owe a great deal to Hondius’s art. His masterly ornamentation of the ground-work with which Speed supplied him is to be recognized in the borders, titles and lettering. Speed’s own antiquarian fancy has given us the historic heraldry of the families which bore county titles, and the city plans, views of notable mansions and churches, etc. Compared with Saxton’s county maps, examples of Speed’s in early state are generally a little less expensive; the editions of the complete work were numerous and the life of the plates in the hands of successive publishers was long, copies bearing an imprint of about 1770 being known.
JOHN NORDEN (1548-1625) was a rival of Saxton’s, and while his smaller output did not share the popularity of the Tatter’s, his maps in some instances take pride of place, as for example in the delineation of the chief roads. The face of the countryside as it then was has assumed a lasting significance by the distinguishing of parks, noblemen’s seats, gentlemen’s houses, castles, market-towns and many other features not before shown, while the borders include a simple system of letters and figures for map references. W I L L I A M CAMDEN’S Britannia contained, in the Latin edition of 1607, some county maps engraved after Saxton and Norden, but smaller in size than their originals. The same work, in its English translation of 1695, contained some fifty county maps fostered by ROBERT MORDEN (d. 1703), not to be confused with Norden. These, of rather inferior and coarser style, are nevertheless interesting and quite common.
In the later 17th and 18th centuries, families like the OVERTON’S, J., H. and P., and the BOWLES’s, T., J. and C. (who were print- as well as map-sellers) handled other men’s plates, so that impressions of earlier works lived on under their ownership and passed to their heirs and successors down into the 19th century. Pursuing the connexion between England and the Netherlands, we find that.
-in-law PIETER VAN DEN KEER,
Hondius and his brother E i who by the same token should perhaps be called by the Latin form Kaerius, settled in Amsterdam on leaving England in the 1590s. As we have seen, Mercator’s Atlas continued to appear with many and valuable additions by
Hondius, so that his name and that of his son Henricus, is rightly connected with the editions published after 16o6. Their successor, Janson, had a formidable rival in the famous house which produced some of the finest maps of the 17th century, BLAEU of Amsterdam, the history of whose members and their contributions to both cartography and
printing is fascinating. WILLEM J ANSZOON BLAEU (1571-
1638) made confusing use of several variants of his name in signing and publishing his maps, and Gulielmus Blaeu and Gul. Janssonius are two of them, the latter apt to be mixed with Jan Janson. In style, many of the Blaeu maps show a more open design, with restrained Roman lettering which appears severe by contrast with earlier forms. Decorative heights were, however, reached with some plates, and the figures, are characteristic. At the present time county maps of England, Wales and Scotland from Blaeu atlases, copied it must be admitted from Speed, are to be found in the map-seller’s, as well as handsome representations of a great many other parts of the known world. The work, which must be considered a summit of achievement, and in which so many of these fine maps are gathered, is something once seen not easily forgotten — the Atlas Major or Geographic Blaviana of 166o. The imposing folio size, the lustrous vellum-gilt binding (also part of the Blaeu business) and its extent, in as many as twelve volumes, constitute a monument far outside the reach of the ordinary collector, who can, however, possess individual maps from it in contemporary colouring, heightened with gold and on paper which it is an inspiration to handle. In England RICHARD BLOME (d. 1705) made county maps for his own Britannia of 1673 and his Cosmography 1693, as well as Speed’s Maps Epitomised in a small size, 1685. Here again we have honest period decoration but somewhat rough workmanship. JOHN 0 0 1 L B Y (1600-76) conducted the first systematic survey of our roads and published Britannia … Description of the Principal Roads Thereof . . . in 1675, a work both ingenious and practical. The chosen highway, drawn as on a long scroll or strip which appears to be folded down across the page, leads the traveller from left to right, from bottom to top, up hill and down dale through hamlets and towns, past houses and halts. The nature of the country is shown by clusters or strings of hills, and such terms as ‘arable’ and ‘pasture’; inns are well noted and the mileage from the starting-point, with intermediate furlongs, are all set down. Its folio size, which makes plates from it such admirable decorative features today, was unhandy for travellers and later versions of the road atlas took on a smaller form. Ogilby’s activities were by no means confined to the Britannia; he published handsome folio
accounts of Africa (1670), America (1671) and Asia (1673),
which all contain maps and views of a most decorative nature.
The Netherlands with its great output of maps catered by translation for the other nations of Europe, the same maps serving England, Spain, France, Italy and Germany with appropriate texts. The famous Dutch makers, already mentioned, were followed by successors to both their fame and their business–the DE WIT’S, the V I S S C H E R’S, the
DANCKERTS’S, SCHENK, the MORTIER’s, ALLARD, whose maps are rich in style and full of detail.
The 18th century, at the beginning of which great use was still being made of the older authorities, saw throughout its course a series of important discoveries which enlarged the face of the globe; great advances in surveying practice and withal a rather bewildering process of amalgamation and succession on the part of the publishers and map-makers themselves.
France under Louis XIV had as Geographer Royal N I COLAS SANSON (1600-67), who with his sons, grandsons and successors, represents a major source of French cartography from the appearance of his first atlas in 1654, until about 1780. A. H. J A I L L OT (1632-1712), Sanson’s successor, and P. DU VA L, his son-in-law, are other names to be noted. French maps, like so many other aspects of French art, display a beauty and elegance in all their characteristics. Many are large, but with fine lettering and unobtrusive though fitting decoration. Lovers of French furniture and pictures will recognize many of the traits which please them in maps from the DF, LISLE’S, the DE VAUGONDY’S, J. N. BELLIN (d. 1772) and J. B. D’ANNVILLE (d. 1782).
As in the Netherlands and France, so in England important businesses were quickly taken up on the death of the principal by enterprising rivals and relatives. Reference to the standard works will give the collector the sequence and help him to identify and date his maps. Foreign talent was still much in evidence in this country; HERMAN M 0 L L (d. 1732), an kigri from Holland, published several collections, e.g. New and Complete Atlas (1719), from which individual plates are quite common. From highly decorative in the style of the time, they range to a type which almost dispenses with ornament in favour of maximum topograpl-deal information. Moll’s titles give a composite arrangement of architecture, figures, animals and floral settings, with frequent inset views and, for example in a map of England, an edging of complicated tables of distances from London, market-days, map references and `eastings and westings’ from the capital. His lettering is clear and frequently the only colour introduced is a tinted outline.
JOHN RocQuE, a Frenchman (d. 1762), has amongst others to his credit a large-scale map of London in two dozen sheets, an extensive and splendid work, and particularly when seen in original colour a feast of intimate detail.
EDWARD WELLS’S New Sett of Maps of Ancient and Present Geography, about 1700, carries on nearly. every plate a dedication to the short-lived son of Queen Anne, William Duke of Gloucester. The maps, although not in the highest class of workmanship, are good decoration.
JOHN SENEX, F.R.S. (d. 1740), produced such works as the New General Atlas of the World, 1721, which has some pleasant scenic cartouches. He also printed and engraved a new edition of Ogilby’s road maps, which was still being issued as late as 1775. His work is like Moll’s, but with generally less elaboration.
T H O M A s KITCHIN (d. 1784) was very active, and with EMANUEL BOWEN (d. 1767) likewise highly productive, they printed, for example, the Large English Atlas in 1755• Maps from this are handsome pieces of engraving with much light rococo ornament. Bowen also illustrated his own Complete System of Geography, 1744, and with J. OWEN brought out a smaller version of Ogilby called Britannia Depicts or Ogilby Improv’d, 172o, and subsequent editions for the next forty years.
Another notable figure was the prolific JOHN CARP (d. 1835), whose imprint will also be found on road maps, and who published a New and Correct English Atlas (1787) (still being issued in the 183os), containing pleasant county maps without the large decoration of previous periods. Maps from it are generally cheap.
THOMAS JEFFERYS, Geographer to the King (d. 1771), collaborated with Kitchin in a Small English Atlas (1749), and also compiled a finely engraved American Atlas, which was not, however, published until 1776.
WILLIAM F A D E N (d. 1836) succeeded Jefferys and continued to make the American continent the subject for his maps. North American Atlas (1777) and other collections contained views, plans and maps from original surveys, which are of great interest today.
A large output from the ARROWSMITH’S (father and son), Aaron and John, bridges the late 18th and early 19th centuries. With BRYANT, GREENWOOD, PICOT and lastly M 0 U L E, we find ourselves entering the Victorian era, with different standards and different processes. Moule’s county maps, 1836, from his English Counties Delineated, are still decorative with vignettes and ornamental titles, but have the somewhat studied elegance of the time.
The celestial or star map, often included in general atlases, can be a thing of great beauty; the imagery of the constellations, always a little baffling, was sometimes brought to a high degree of complexity. There were a number of star atlases of note, and the 17th century alone saw such as BAYER (1603), SCHILLER (1627), CELLARIUS (166o), HEVELIUS (16go); also CORONELLi and the Englishman SELLER, whose Atlas Coelestis is another of his ‘pocket-size’ publications.
In later times there were, FLAMSTEED, the first Astronomer Royal, with his Atlas Coelestis (1729); J. G. DoPPEL. MAYR (1742), etc. The stars were not always marshalled into the familiar shapes of deities and objects, schemes of Biblical figures and of heraldic arrangements being also proposed. Examples of coloured star maps can be striking, while the decorative possibilities of large photo-copies of uncoloured examples are considerable.

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MUSKET AND PIKE
An attempt to produce some order in the manufacture of firearms had an odd terminological result. In the army of Piedmont, before the battle of Moncontour in 1569, there were so many sizes of bore amongst the arquebuses that ammunition supply became a difficult problem. To overcome this 7000 arquebuses were ordered of one calibre, and referred to as ‘harquebuze de calibre de Monsieur le Prince’. The type of arquebus which was made to comply with this order had a bore of 10 or 11, weighed 12 pounds and had a barrel length of 42 inches. It became so popular that its use on the Continent became very widespread, and it appeared in England during the last quarter of the sixteenth century.. The original cumbersome reference had been contracted by the soldiers to `Calibre du Prince’, and later simply to ‘Calibre’. This became anglicized as ‘Caliver’, and in 1578 the Tower of London had 7000 of them in store. They were matchlocks, rather. heavier than the previous pattern of arquebus, and about four feet ten inches in overall length. Eventually the term came to mean any firearm which was light enough to be fired without a rest. ‘Arquebus’ was then frequently applied to cavalry wheel-lock arms.
In 1595 the Trained Bands were ordered to exchange their bows for calivers and muskets, and by this time calivers formed part of the armament of every English infantry unit. In fact, in a levy for Ireland of the following year, the ’shot accounted for half the infantry, and of these three-quarters were armed with calivers and only one-quarter with muskets. The days of the caliver, however, were numbered; for, unlike the musket, its shot was too light to pierce heavy armour.
The musket was actually earlier in origin than the caliver, having been invented in about 1546, though its adoption in England was somewhat slow. It was, essentially, an improved form of matchlock arquebus, with a greater g rane and accuracy and firing a heavier
rang
It had a barrel 4 feet long, a bore of 8 or io, and was designed to penetrate the heaviest protective armour. Its weight was 2o pounds, and it was consequently necessary to support the barrel on a forked rest. The first type of musket seems to have been too cumbersome to use for anything except siege warfare, and the Duke of Alva has been stated to have been the first to adapt it for use in the field, in his campaign in the Netherlands in
1567. By the time of the Civil War the musket had been considerably lightened, and it was possible to use it without a rest.
In one respect the musket was destined to achieve undying
FIG. 41. A MATCH-BOX.
fame; for its name came to denote any shoulder firearm, and even ‘rifle’ is merely a shortened form of ‘rifled musket’.
One of the disadvantages of the matchlock was the match. In very wet weather it was liable to be extinguished. To give some protection a ‘match-box’ was introduced. This was a tube of pewter, latten or tin, about a foot long, with holes in the side to let in aif.
It was this difficulty with the .match which was responsible for the development of spark ignition. The first substance to be employed for this purpose was pyrites; a mineral which included a combination of iron and sulphur. The mechanism in which it was used was known as the ‘wheel-lock’, and was invented in Nuremberg about 1517. A fragment of pyrites was held in contact with a steel wheel which had a serrated

FIG, 42. WHEEL- LOCKS.
Top: A Wheel-lock Carbine, Elizabeth I. Bottom: A Wheel-lock Dag, Edward VI.
edge. The wheel was rotated by the release of a powerful V-spring attached to the lock plate. The resulting stream of parks was directed at the priming powder.
The spindle of the wheel had a square end, and the lock was set by fitting a key, or spanner, to the spindle and winding it in a clockwise direction. This pulled a short chain of about three links round the spindle, and tautened the spring. After a three-quarter turn a scear (spring catch), which was fixed on the inside of the lock plate, engaged a slot on the wheel.
The flash-pan was then primed and closed. The bottom of the pan, however, was pierced to admit the top of the wheel. The piece of pyrites, which was held in a clamp at the head of the cock, was next lowered on to the top of the pan cover. Assuming it to have been loaded, the weapon was now ready for firing.
Pressure on the trigger drew back the scear and released the spring, causing the wheel to revolve. An ingenious device then caused the pan cover to open. A cam attached to the wheel spindle struck an arm which was connected to the pan cover. This opened the latter, permitting the pyrites to fall on the wheel. The pan cover was then held open by a spring catch.
The wheel-lock was, as may be imagined, an extremely
FIG. 43. WHEEL-LOCK DAGS.
expensive firearm to make, particularly when compared with the simple matchlock. Its adoption in England was consequently slow, and it never became a general issue to the infantry. It was a very useful lock, however, for a horseman. The management of a matchlock on horseback was a difficult feat, for the match had to be kept alight and any adjustments made to it with one hand.
The first single-handed firearms were intended for the horse soldier. These were the dags or tacks, the forerunners of pistols. The first dags were, in appearance, small arquebuses with wheel-locks. In 1544 they were introduced into England as a cavalry weapon.
The wheel-lock, also known as a firelock, suffered from two disadvantages; the first was the expense, and the second the weakness of the pyrites, which was liable to break into pieces. The demand for a sound and inexpensive method of spark transmission led to the introduction of the flintlock. The name originally given to this new mechanism was ’snaphaunce’. This was derived from the Dutch snaphaan, meaning a pecking fowl, and referred to the pecking motion of the cock.
The sparks in the flintlock were produced by striking a piece of flint against a case-hardened steel plate, with serrated ridges on its face. The flint was held in- a clamp at the top of the cock. The ’steel’, against which the flint was struck, worked on an arm which was hinged to the lock plate and held in position by a V-spring. To fire the weapon the cock -was drawn back, thereby compressing the main spring, which in turn actuated an internal tumbler connected to the cock. The scear engaged the tumbler and held the cock in the fully open position. The steel was then lowered towards the rear of the piece and on to the lip of the flash-pan; bringing it within range of the cock. Pulling the trigger drew back the scear, thereby releasing the cock; with the result that the flint struck the steel, directing a stream of sparks into the pan. This last was uncovered, during the forward movement of the cock, through a tumbler actuating a steel link which thrust against the lower part of the pan cover.
This type of flintlock was complicated and still fairly expensive. It was little used in England, though some of the troops ordered to Ireland in i58o are said to have been armed with it. On the Continent, however, it was in common use for a long time. In England it was superseded in the first quarter of the seventeenth century by the so-called ‘English lock’ flintlock. This was a much better and simpler weapon than the original snaphaunce, and the mechanism remained basically the same for all future flintlock firearms.
In the English lock the steel and pan cover were combined in a single piece which was called the ‘hammer’. This consisted of a hinged pan cover which worked upon a screw set in the lock plate and held in either the open or closed positions by a V-spring. The steel, or striking surface, rose approximately at right angles in a curve from the free end of the cover. When the cock was released the flint hit the steel, causing a shower of sparks, and at the same time pushed the whole member back on the hinge, so uncovering the priming powder to the sparks. The firing mechanism was practically the same as that of the snaphaunce, but the weapon could be put at safety by raising the cock half-way and leaving the pan
FIG. 44. AN ARQUEBUS WITH SNAPHAUNCE LOCK.
closed. This “half-cock’ position was achieved by providing a notch on the tumbler in which the scear engaged.
On some English locks there was an additional safety device. This was a catch on the outside of the lock plate which engaged in a notch on the cock when it was in the `half-cock’ position. This type of safety-catch was called a dog-catch and locks so fitted were known as doglocks.
Although the term `snaphaunce’ seems to have been applied originally to those flintlocks with separate pan covers and steels, it appears to have been soon used, in the early seventeenth century, to denote all flintlocks.
The difficulty of managing a matchlock on horseback has already been mentioned. Nevertheless in about I 53o a modification of the arquebus was produced for this purpose. It was called a ‘Petronel’ or ‘poitrinal’, names derived from the French and signifying that the weapon was intended to be fired from the chest. It was shorter than the arquebus but of a large calibre, and, on account of its weight, was carried on a broad shoulder belt. As a matchlock it was a fairly impracticable weapon, and later -versions were fitted with wheel-locks.
Another horseman’s firearm was the dragon. This was something between a petronel and a pistol. Traditionally it had a. dragon’s head at its muzzle, and it is supposed to have given its name to the French Dragons (Dragoons), first raised by Charles de Cosse, Marechal de Brissac, in 1600. Of the later and similar English troops, Markham, in his Souldier’s
FiG. 45- PETRONELS.
Acidence of 1645, says: ‘The last sort of which our horse troopes are composed are called dragoons, which are a kind of footmen on horsebacks, and do now indeed succeed the light horsemen, and are of singular use in all actions of warre. The armes defensive are an open head piece with cheeks, and a good buffs coat, with deeps skirts; and for offensive armes they have a faire dragon fitted with. an iron works, to be carried in a belt of leather, which is buckled over the right shoulder and under the left arms, having a turnill of iron work with a ring, through which the piece runnes up and downs; and these dragons are short pieces of sixteen inches the barrell, and full musquet bore, with firelocks or snaphaunces, also a belt with a flaske, pryming box, key, and bullet bag, and a good sword.’
In the heavy horse petronel and dag were succeeded in due course by carbine and pistol. The difference between a pistol and a dag is, however, not very clear. Weapons which we should normally call pistols were often called dags in England and tacks in Scotland in the early seventeenth, and, in the case of the latter, eighteenth centuries. Owing to their small size,. and consequent popularity as a personal weapon; pistols from very early days seem to  have expressed tastes in design and decoration of different gunsmiths. In addition, there have
FIG. 46. A DRAGON.
frequently .been fashions in pistol design which gunsmiths have met in their own particular style: To describe all the pistols which have been used in war would, therefore, be quite beyond the scope of the present work. Nevertheless there are two special types which must be mentioned. The first of these is the screw-barrel pistol. This had a cannon-shaped barrel ‘which screwed off so that the charge could be loaded direct into the breech  piece. These enjoyed a great vogue during the reign of Charles I and for some time afterwards. The second is -one of the most famous pistols, or rather -family of pistols, ever made.. This was the Scottish all-metal pistol, which, as far as is known, was first made towards the end of the sixteenth century. The earliest one on record was manufactured byAlison of Dundee. The principal difference between the Scottish pistol and others was that the stock was made of steel or brass instead of wood. The butts of the earliest models had a fish-tailed end, and they were sometimes made of wood encased in, or mounted with, brass or silver.
The early seventeenth-century carbine, according to a 1630 book on cavalry by Captain Cruso, was the same length as an arquebus but had a smaller bore. It was a flintlock, and it was slung from a shoulder belt by a swivel.
There were two disastrous expeditions during the reign of Charles 1, the failure of which was to some extent due to defective firearms. In the force sent to Cadiz, in fact, the majority of the firearms are said to have been either defective or useless. As a result of these deficiencies a special Commission under the Privy Seal appointed a select committee of gunmakers, arniourcrs, pikemakers and bandolier makers, `being the skillfullest and prime workmen of this land’, to undertake an investigation into the arms of the national militia and Trained Bands and to rectify any deficiencies. The London gunmakers mentioned as being on the Commission were Henry Rowland, Richard Burrowe, Thomas Addis, John Norcott, William Dawstin, John Watson and William Graves. These gunmaker members were temporarily vested with powers of proving and testing firearms.

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Nevertheless Henry did his best to ensure that, in spite of the increasing use of firearms, there should remain a large reserve of trained archers in the country from whom he could raise the bulk of his infantry in the event of war. In a new statute of 154:1 the vast majority of the male population between the ages of seventeen and -sixty were required to exercise themselves in archery and to be in possession of a bow and arrows. This was an even wider age limit than was laid down in the statute of 1511. At the same time the use of firearms was limited to certain persons and occasions as follows: ‘It shall be lawful, from henceforth, to all gentlemen yeomen, and servingmen of every lord, spiritual and temporal, and of all knights, esquires, and gentlemen, and to all the inhabitants of cities, boroughs, and market towns, of this Realm of England, to shoot with any hand-gun, demihake, or hagbut, at any butt or bank of earth, only in places convenient for the same: so that every such hand-gun, etcetera, be of the several lengths aforesaid, and not under. And that it shall be lawful, to every of the said lord and lords, knights, esquires, and gentlemen, and the inhabitants of every city, borough, and market town, to have and keep in every of their houses such hand-gun or hand-guns, of the length of one whole yard, and not under, to the intent to use and shoot in the same, at a butt or bank of earth only, as is above said, whereby they and every one of them, by the exercise thereof, in form above said, may the better aid and assist in the defense of this realm, when need shall require.’
There were many to lament the passing of the bow. In 1549 Bishop Latimer, preaching before Edward VI, denounced the vices of the age, and advocated, as a method of combating

FiG. 22. ARBALESTIERS.
The process of loadin,-, is clearly shown. Note the use of the windlass.
them, a return to the noble and manly pastimes which had been practised in his youth. He said: ‘In my time my poore father was as diligent to teach me to shoote as to learn *  me any other thing; and so I think other men did their children. He taught me how to draw, how to lay my body in my bow, and not to draw with strength of arms, as other nations doe, but with strength of the body. I had my bowes bought me according to my age and strength, as I increased in them, so my bowes were made bigger and bigger, for men shall never shoot well except they be brought up in it. It is a goodlie art, a wholesome kind of exercise, and much commended in phisicke. As late as z 55 there is a record in the Venetian State Papers of an appreciation of the English archers by one Giovanni Michele. He says: ‘. . . they, to say the truth; being. most expqrt archers, so that they would not yield to any other people more trained and experienced then they are; and such is their opinion of archery and their esteem of it, that they doubtless prefer it to all sorts of arms, and to harquebuses, in which they trust less, feeling more sure of their bows and arrows; contrary, however, to the judgement of the captains and soldiers of other nations. They draw the bow with such force and dexterity at the same time, that some are said to pierce corslets and body-armour; r; and there are few among them, even those that are moderately practised, who will not undertake at a convenient distance, either aiming point-blank, or in the air (as they generally do, that the arrow may fly further), to hit within an inch and a half of the mark.’    With moulinet or windlass.
The cross-bow was a mechanical
version of the bow, which was far more popular than the latter on the continent of Europe, but which was little used in England. It had neither the range nor speed of discharge of the long bow, but, on the other  hand, comparatively little training was required to enable a soldier to handle it reasonably effectively.
There were two kinds of cross-bow: the arbalest, which was a heavy weapon, and the latch, which was much the lighter, and the more popular in England. The bow of the arbalest was generally of steel. This was strained by means of a small windlass, which fitted on to the end of the butt, and wound up a .tackle which was hooked on to the bow-string. At the foremost end of the arbalest was a stirrup which rested on the ground during this operation, and in which the foot was placed to hold the weapon steady. The windlass and tackle when not in use were carried slung from the waist belt. The arbalest was held in tension, and the bow released by means of a ‘lock’. The early cross-bow locks varied considerably in design. They were not built up on a plate like a gun-lock, but consisted of mutually independent levers set on
FIG. 26. A LATCH.
Elizabeth I.
to the tiller or stock. The lever pivots were pins which passed through the stock from one side to the other. In the sixteenth century the type of lock was introduced which was to be used for many centuries on firearms. In this the mechanism was built on to a plate which was fixed to the stock. The release was actuated by a ‘tricker’, or hair trigger.
The latch was a much lighter weapon, and it was bent by a windlass of much simpler form than that employed for the arbalest. This was the ‘goat’s foot’ lever which worked by means of a cog and ratchet.
The early firearms were more useful for their moral effect than for any damage that they caused; and throughout the mediaeval period the personal, or hand, firearm played a sub-sidiary r6le. The noise and smoke were most impressive; and in the earliest and most inaccurate days there was, from the user’s point of view, a comforting theory that the wounds they caused were poisonous and incurable. Soldiers armed with
FiG. 27. LATCH.
Elizabeth I.
hand-guns would, indeed, need some comfort, for they must have been fearsome weapons to fire, and the observable results extremely disappointing.
0
Hand-auns of sorts were in use in the fourteenth century,  for Froissart mentions their use in an English force commanded by Sir John Chandos in 1369. These were probably very small weapons mounted on the end of a long shaft; for a bill submitted a few years later by William de Sleaforde, Keeper of the Privy Purse, includes the sum of thirteen shillings for fitting eight guns with helves, in the same manner as pikes. The helve, or shaft, was used to give support to the gun, and was generally stuck into the ground at a low angle. To give horizontal fire it might be hooked on to a wall or tree, the front
end being supported by a forked    FIG. 30. A HAND-GUN. rest. The charge was generally
ignited by inserting a red-hot wire through the touch-hole.
In a MS. which is in the British Museum, there is the figure of a soldier firing a hand-gun of a very early form. The MS. is marked `Royal, 15 E IV’, but it is dedicated to Edward V, and must presumably have been completed in 1485. The gun has no stock and is rested on top of the shoulder. It is being fired by applying-a match to the touch-hole, which is on top of the piece. From the attitude of the soldier it looks as if the gun, in its recoil, is likely to prove a far more dangerous weapon to himself than it is to any conceivable enemy This type of gun was, however, already out of date at the time the book was written. The first improvement seems to have been made during the reign of Henry VI, when the touchhole was moved to the side of the barrel, and a pan was secured below the touch-hole to hold the priming powder. Some of
FIG- 32. A HAND-GUN OF 1468.
these guns were turned into dual-purpose weapons by fixing an axe-head to the rear end. By the last quarter of the fifteenth century stocks were being fitted, which enabled the- gun to be held much more firmly and gave the firer some chance of dispatching his bullet in a generally appropriate direction. The butt was, however, held more often between elbow and body than it was into the shoulder. The final improvement to the hand-gun proper was the addition of a cover to the pan to prevent the powder being blown away by the wind.
The match, which replaced the original hot wire, was of cord or similar material which had been soaked in saltpetre or lees of wine. Thus treated, it burnt slowly and was not easily extinguished by inclement weather.
FIG- 33. A HAND-GUN WITH A STOCK.
Although the term ‘hand-gun’ was used to denote a personal firearm until the middle of the sixteenth century, the original crude weapon was replaced by the genesis of the matchlock, when mechanical means were introduced to apply the match to the priming pan about the first quarter of the fifteenth century. This innovation resulted in an enormous improvement in the accuracy of shooting; for the firer could now hold his weapon with both hands, instead of requiring one hand free to apply the loose match. The match was held in a pair of metal jaws, which were brought down on -to the priming pan by raising a long pivoted lever which extended towards the butt. The match holder was called a ‘dog’, ’serpentine’ or ‘dragon’ from its fancied resemblance to these animals.
The matchlock proper was an improvement on the above mechanism, which was now embodied in a ‘lock’. The match was held in the forked holder, or ’serpentine’, by a
FIG. 34. A CALIVER-MAN.
From the Roll of the Funeral of Sir Philip Sydney, 1586.
thumb screw. Linked to the serpentine was a lever, or ’scear’,
which was pivoted inside the lock plate. Raising the rear end
of the scear swung the serpentine over to the flash-pan. The
scear was actuated by a long trigger, similar in form to that of a
cross-bow, which was screwed to its rear end. A scear springwas
fixed inside the lock plate which pressed against the forward
end of the scear, so keeping the lighted match clear of the pan
until the trigger was pressed. The flash-pan was secured to the breech, and was closed by a hinged pan cover. This was always kept closed until the weapon was about to be fired.
The matchlock mechanism was probably suggested by that of the cross-bow. The firearms first fitted with this lock were called ‘arquebuses’; and it has been suggested that the term
FIG. 35. A MUSQUFTUR.
From the. Poll of the Fuxeral of Sir Philip Sydney, r536.
`arquebus’ referred to the lock, and was a corruption of the Italian arcabouza, or ‘bow with a mouth’. When, the first regular unit of English troops, the Yeomen of the Guard, was formed after Henry VII’s victory at Bosworth, one-half of the men were armed with bows and the other half with arquebuses. Of the two the archers were the more-formidable. The effective range of these early arquebuses was only about fifty yards, and they were probably incapable of killing a. man at a greater distance than ioo yards. On the other hand, it was not considered permissible for a fully trained archer to practise at the butts at a shorter range than 22o yards. In addition the archer could shoot six arrows to one shot of the arquebusier. As has already been pointed out, however, it took far less time to train an arquebusier than an archer.
The preparation of the matchlock for firing was, indeed, an appallingly slow business. The procedure for reloading was as follows:
(a) The match, which was lighted at both ends, was removed from the serpentine.
FiG. 36. AN ENGLTSTI MUSQUET.
Elizabeth I.
(b) A charge of powder was measured out from-the powder flask. This was done by reversing the flask and pressing a catch, which allowed the powder to flow into the nozzle of the flask, at the same time stopping up the mouth with a finger. When the nozzle was full the catch was released, this being the requisite charge of powder.
(c) The charge of powder was poured into the barrel.
(d) A bullet was extracted from the pouch and put down the barrel on top of the powder.
(e) A wad of rag, paper or tow was inserted in ‘the barrel and rammed down on top of bullet and powder.
(f) The flash-pan was filled with fine-grained powder from the ‘touch-box’; the cover closed and surplus powder blown away.

(g) The match was put back into the serpentine and adjusted for length. (Adjustments to the match had to be made frequently, or it burnt down too close to the serpentine and went out. The lighted free end was then used to relight the serpentine end.)
The original matchlock arquebus was froze to 31 feet in length overall, with a very short and sharply curved stock. This was intended to be supported against the chest rather than the shoulder. The barrel length was from 24 to 30
FIG- 37. THE HARQUEBUS.
Top: An Harquebus with a Trigger (Henry VIII).
Bottom: The Lock of an Harquebus of a later date with its Serpentine.
inches, and the bore between 20 and 30 (i.e. the number of bullets to the pound).
The different terms used for early firearms are extremely confusing; for not only were different names sometimes applied to the same weapon, but also with the passage of years a name often came to mean something entirely different from its original usage. Thus, ‘arquebus’ and ‘matchlock’ were originally synonymous; but in later years `arquebus’ denoted any light firearm which could be discharged from the breast or shoulder without the use of a rest. Again, ‘hacquebut’ or ‘hakbut’ (and many other spellings) was often used as an alternative to ‘arquebus’, but in earlier times it referred to a firearm with a very curved stock which brought the Ibarrel to eye level. Smaller versions were known as ‘dcmi-hags’ or `half-hackbuts’, and were really a form of pistol.
The introduction of the matchlock marks the close of the
FIG. 38. A D.ENII-FIAG.
mediaeval period, and the approaching end of the superiority of shock weapons. The increasing efficiency of firearms was to result, soon, in the virtual disappearance of armour from the battlefield, and by the latter years of the sixteenth century the bullet had established equality with cold steel.

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The pike was quickly followed by a number of other shafted weapons, all of which owed their origin to it, and all for the use of the foot soldier. The linstock was intended for the artilleryman. It consisted of a pike with the addition of lateral branches on each side of the head, sometimes terminating in bird’s or serpent’s heads. These latter were intended
FIG. 12. PARTIZANS.
Edward IV; C. 1500., Henry VIII; German, c. x61o; James 1.
to hold the match for firing cannon. Previously the cannoneer had had to discard his pike in order to apply the match to the touch-hole, and was frequently slain in the process. The linstock ensured that he remained armed.
The partizan was originally something like a pike with lateral projections at the base of the blade. The blade later became longer, flatter and more ornamental, and often gilt and covered with elaborate engraving. As a mediaeval weapon it had a comparatively short practical life. After the reign of Henry VIII its use seems to have been confined to ceremonial occasions and for the arming of bodyguards.
The spontoon had a flat blade like the partizan, but it did not have the projections at the base. It had a much shorter staff than the pike, and was intended for use in closer combat,
FIG- 13. SPONTOONS.
Tower of London.
The halbert was more akin to the bill than the pike, and it has been suggested that its name is derived from the German Halb-Barthe, meaning ‘half battle-axe’. In form it was something like a pike with an axe-head mounted immediately below the pike blade; so that it could be used either for cutting or thrusting.

Swords were, of course, used at Hastings. It would be difficult to cite any pre-twentieth_century battle in which they were not carried into action. They are, by tradition, the most honourable weapon of all. the very symbol of the profession of arms.
Saxon swords were of two kinds, both being of iron; about three feet in length, and straight. One of these was double-edged and very sharp. It had no guard, not even a simple crosspiece. The other was very similar, but it had a cross-piece as a

FIG. 14. HALBERTS.
Henry VII; Henry V111; Edward V1-, Mary.
guard, and a pommel which was sometimes foliated. The hilts of these swords were generally of wood covered with leather, horn or bone. The sword hilts of some of the greater or wealthier nobles, however, were frequently covered with plates of gold or silver.
The Norm in swords can be seen on the early Royal and baronial seals, and a very similar type was used throughout the mediaeval period. The blade was long and tapering, double-edged, with a simple cross-piece guard to the hilt, either straight or curving towards the blade; the pommels being round or of various ornamental shapes. In the latter half of the fifteenth century the blades tapered to a very fine point, and the upper part was often gilt and engraved. These mediaeval swords were intended for either cutting or thrusting. The many carved effigies which remain in churches throughout the country afford abundant examples of the swords which were in fashion at different periods.

FIG. 15. SWORDS.
Henry V; Edward VI; Henry VII; 1495, engraved by
Albrecht Mirer; Henry VIII.
Saxon and Norman sword scabbards were generally of wood covered with leather, sometimes with bronze mounts. Later, scabbards of metal and cuirbouilli (boiled leather) made their appearance. From about the thirteenth century the mounts and chapel, or metal tips to the scabbard, were ornamental in shape and often heavily engraved.

FIG. 16. SWORD-BELTS.
Top row: A Septvans, Chartham Church, Kent; Brian Lord Fitzalan of Bedale, from Bedale Church, Oxford; Brass of Sir John de St. Quentin, Bransburton Church, Yorkshire. fiddle row: Sir Walter Arden, Aston Church, Warwickshire; Detail of Belt in previous illustration; Brass of a Knight in Laughton Church, Lincolnshire. Bottom row: Mode of fastening Sword-belt, fifteenth century, from• Viollet-le-Duc; Brass of John Cray at Chinnor, Oxfordshire. Ann. 1390. Sword-belt, Queen Elizabeth.

FIG- 17- SWORDS.
Top row: Edward IV-, Henry VI; Henry VII; Henry VII; Henry VIII; Queen Elizabeth. Middle row: Queen Elizabeth; Queen Elizabeth; Queen Elizabeth; Queen Elizabeth; Henry VIII. Bottom row-. Queen Elizabeth; Henry VIII; Henry VIII; Henry VIII-, Queen Elizabeth-, Sword of Wolfgang Wilhelm, Count Palatine of the Rhine, 1614-

The bow was well known, of course, to the Saxons, but it was used by them far more for hunting than for war. It was the Normans who showed on an English battlefield what a formidable weapon it could be. Nevertheless, even for the Normans the bow was very much of an auxiliary weapon, and it is surprising what a small part it played in warfare for two and a half centuries after the battle of Hastings.
The bows of the eleventh century    Thirteenth century;
were short, stretching only from head    Fourteenth century.
to knee, and they had nothing like the power of the later bows which were to make the English archers so famous. It was Edward III who raised a disciplined force of archers, probably owing to a shortage of heavy horses for men-at-arms, and thereby revived infantry as a factor on the battlefield. The shooting power of these new troops was demonstrated to an astonished Continent at the battle of Crecy in 1346.
The English archers were armed
with a bow measuring six feet or more,
and made chiefly of yew, but sometimes
of ash, elm or witch-hazel. The bow-
string was of hemp, flax or silk. The
standard arrow, the ‘cloth-yard shaft’,
was made of ash, oak, birch or one or
two other woods. The point was of
burnished steel, and it was winged
with feathers from the grey goose; or sometimes the peacock,
the swan or other birds. The bow was generally carried in a case to protect it from the weather and to stop it from warping.
That bows and arrows were adequate both in quality and numbers’was always of concern in mediaeval times. In 1405, for instance, it was found that faulty heads had been made for arrows and quarrels. As a result a statute was promulgated directing that, ‘All the Heads for Arrows and Quarrels after this Time to be made, shall be well boiled or brased, and

FIG. 20. CRAPES.
Henry VIII, Dagger Sheath; Henry VIII, Sword Sheath;
1321 Sword Sheath from effigy in Hereford Cathedral,
hardened at the Points with Steel’ ; and also that, ‘E very Arrow head and Quarrel be Marked with the Mark of him that made the same’. During the latter part of the fifteenth century there was apparently a constant shortage of bowstaves. In 1472 it was decreed that any merchant ship coming from a foreign city, town or country, which had at any time sent bowstaves into England, was to bring four bowstaves with every ton of merchandise. In 1483 there was some trouble with the Lombards, who had been guilty, apparently, of supplying very poor bowstaves, and of profiteering in them as well. They were cnsequently required to include ten good bowstaves free of charge with every butt of wine imported into England.
It was a long time before hand firearms replaced the long bow in England. In the hands of the English archers the latter was a far more accurate weapon than the early and primitive firearm; and it excelled it, too, both in range and rate of discharge. It was not till the sixteenth century was well advanced that the bow was finally superseded; and this was due more to the shortage of trained archers than to superiority in the firearms of the day. It took practice from youth up to train an archer, and in the hey-day of archery it was practised on every village green. But the spread of firearms and their use for sport inevitably resulted in a growing dearth of young men who could draw the long bow. Henry
VIII did his best to keep up.
the standard of archers. In    Left: Steel Sheath, Henry VIII. a statute of i Sog he forbade Right: Copper Sheath, Elizabeth I.
the use of gun or crossbow except under special licence from the King; and in a further statute of 15 11 he required every man under the age of forty to provide himself with bow and arrows and to practise shooting with the long bow.
At the battle of Flodden the bow was still the principal missile weapon of the infantry, but the use of firearms was already increasing rapidly. In 1537 Henry VIII recognized the inevitable, and granted a patent to the overseers of the Guild of Saint George (now the Honourable Artillery Company) by which they and their successors were authorized to establish a perpetual fraternity or guild of artillery and ‘to exercise themselves in shooting with the long-bow, crossbow, and hand-guns’.

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The lance was, of course, the weapon specially associated with the knight. At its head, in the great days of chivalry, it bore the small flag which indicated the knight’s rank and. status. A baron or knight-banneret had a square or rectangular banner emblazoned with its owner’s arms. A knight commanding in the field had a swallow-tailed pennon, also
FIG. 6. BATTLE-AXES.
2, Henry VIII; 3 & 4, Elizabeth I; 5, James I; 6, Dutch.
emblazoned with his arms. If, for his distinguished conduct in action, he was made a knight-bannerct on the battlefield, his pennon was converted technically into a banner by cutting off the swallow tails. An ordinary knight, fighting in the ranks, carried a triangular pennon, or pensil, on which might be either his badge or arms, and frequently depicted so that they were the right way up when the lance was horizontal. In the reign of Henry VIII all this gay individual heraldry was swept away, and the lances of the cavalry bore the white pennon and red cross of St. George.
There were a number of other shafted weapons which had their origin in mediaeval times; some of them lasting until a
FIG. 8. BATTLE-AXES. From the Bayeux Tapestry.
much later period of history. The oldest of these was probably the battle-axe, which was used by the Normans at Hastings, and it had some affinity with the Saxon bill. It had, however, a much shorter shaft, and was essentially a weapon for the mounted man. Another early weapon was the guisarme, which was a form of lance with a hook at,its side, and which was known to the Normans in the eleventh century. It was probably derived from the peasant’s ox-goad.

FIG. 9. MACES.
Top row: Quadrelle, temp. Edward IV; Massuelle, temp. Richard III; temp. Henry VII with hand-gun; Henry VIII; Philip & Mary. Middle row: Mace, temp. Henry V-, Henry VI; Henry VI, Edward IV; Henry VII; Henry VII; Henry VIII. Bottom row: Henry VIII; Henry VIII; Henry VIII; Edward VI.

The guisarme appears to have been little used in England, but from it came a derivative which was very popular in Wales. It had a broad, heavy, pointed blade on the end of a long shaft, and could be used either for cutting or thrusting. Presumably experience of it in the Welsh wars had impressed its value on the English, for in the first year of Richard III’s reign one Nicholas Spicer is recorded as having issued an order for the impressment of smiths to make Zoo Welsh glaives. Chaucer gives a hint at its formidable nature in a line: ‘And
FIG. 10. PIKE HEADS.
Left to right: Henry VII;’Henry VIII; Edward VI; Elizabeth I;
James 1; Charles I; Cromwell; Charles II; Charles II.
whet their tongue as sharp as sword or glaive’. In the sixteenth century the glaive was fashioned in all manner of decorative shapes, and generally richly engraved.
The baston is another of the shafted weapons of the Bayeux Tapestry. At its best it was an iron-tipped staff, but was sometimes merely a wooden bludgeon or a knotted club. It was succeeded by the similar but much more decorative mace. Maces became very popular with the many war-like prelates of the Middle Ages; since by using this arm in battle they were able to persuade their elastic consciences that they were evading the condemnation of all holding office in the Church who fought with the sword. Maces were made in all sorts of decorative and fantastic shapes, and they were the weapons of the King’s Serjeants-at-Arms as early as the fourteenth century. There was a smaller kind of mace called a masuel. This must have been a cheap, handy and dangerous little weapon, for it was included in the list of arms which Edward 1, in the first year of his reign, forbade his turbulent London subjects to carry.
The pike, which from the time of its introduction until the coming of the bayonet was to be the main shock weapon of the British infantry, did not reach England until the reign of
FIG. II. LINSTOCKS.
Early Italian; Elizabeth I; Elizabeth I; Charles 1.
Edward IV. It could not claim to be an original weapon; for it was merely a modification of the cavalry lance adapted to the needs of infantry, and a reintroduction in a slightly different form of the earlier short and light infantry spear. Nevertheless, its appearance on the continent of Europe in the hands of well-disciplined infantry revolutionized military tactics. For the first time for centuries infantry had a shock weapon with which they could face and repel cavalry. For 400 years mounted troops had dominated the battlefield. That place was now to be taken by the infantry until armoured formations arrived to-redress the balance some 5oo years later.

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