Shooting the War

CHINA AND GLASS
China restoration is always delicate work, requiring care, accuracy and knowledge of technique. How much knowledge depends entirely on how ambitious you arc. Most people, if they Fail in simple efforts to stick china together, take it to a professional restorer if the piece is of any value. It also depends on what is going to happen to a piece after it is mended. If it is to stand peacefully on a shelf, then the repair need not be so strong as it would have to be for domestic use. Some people try to restore a piece to the state where only a very close scrutiny will reveal the mend. It is technically possible to fool even ultra violet light. Others feel that there is no shame in a few cracks in old china. Like so many skills connected with making and mending things, china restoring can develop from the ability simply to stick broken pieces together, to the most complex dowelling and pinning and moulding and modelling and casting and painting. It can start by being a chore and end by being an art, which like any art develops into pride in craftsmanship, and pleasure in achievement. Maybe the kind of painstaking repair I am thinking of comes outside die scope of a book on restoring junk, but I shall include an outline of some of the methods and materials and tools needed just in case you do decide to venture further than a little bit of glucing.
Some technical colleges run classes on china restoration, but they arc few and far between, although this is one of the best ways to gain expert knowledge and experience. The study of books on die subject and plenty of practice should make you reasonably efficient if you are not totally ham-fisted !
There arc so many objects in so many shapes and sizes made of so in-uiy materials; so many ‘pots’ that it is difficult to detail all the techniques, and each job must be treated on its merits. The first and easiest method is to mend by sticking. Sticking things together used to be more difficult than it is now, because die old adhesives were nothing like so easy to use or so heat-and-water-resistant, so free from shrinkage, or attacks by fungus, so clean, so invisible, or so strong. The invention of cellulose glues and epoxy resin adhesives has completely revolutionised sticking, and made it possible to mend things with adhesive alone where riveting, dowelling, or pinning would once have been essential.
As a general rule, a piece of china, be it a plate, a pot, a Statuette, or a vase, can be mended by sticking alone if the two faces come together properly and neatly and if they can be made to stay in position while the adhesive is setting.
If a part such as a curved handle, or the limb of a figurine, is broken, perhaps in more than one place, and there are pieces missing; or if the surfaces to be joined are chipped and do not fit, or there arc whole sections missing; then more ambitious methods will have to be used. Whole sections can be remade by modelling with epoxy resins just as the sculptor models, or by making plaster moulds and taking castings. Large missing parts can be moulded or modelled incorporating wire supporting frameworks fixed to die whole piece.
Broken parts are refixed together and to the whole, provided they are thick enough to carry drilled holes, either by pinning—which means inserting a metal pin into a hole drilled after the pieces have been stuck—or by dowelling, which is the joining of pieces by drilling matching holes in each and cementing in a single dowel. Any or all of these methods might be necessary at the same time in one single object (see Fig. io).
Lastly, broken pieces can be riveted together. The ugliness of this technique, strong though it is, means that it has largely been superseded by other methods since the discovery of die better adhesives, and is really only used for extreme strength and utility rather than for restoration and beauty.
Cleaning. Before any porcelain or pottery may be mended it must be cleaned. Normally all that is needed is a wash in warm soapy water. If die piece is already clean, then wipe it with a piece of silk dipped in methylated spirits. Keep any old pieces of real silk for china restoration work, as silk does not leave little bits of lint or fluff caught on jagged edges.
Remove stains from china with very dilute hydrochloric acid, but test first in case the acid etches the glaze. A cloth dipped in either bicarbonate of soda or common salt will remove coffee stains.
To remove dirt along cracks which are not going to be repaired—cracks which are, and look dirty—make a pad of cotton wool and saturate it in a mild bleaching solution such as hydrogen peroxide and lay it along the crack for some days, renewing the solution as die pads dry out. When the treatment is completed, scrub the piece gently with a soft brush, and even more dirt may conic away. This method is useless on earthenware, but for this and for English porcelain, which is usually so porous that the dirt is well ingrained, soak the piece for up to a week in a solution of domestic bleach. This will remove most stubborn stains and won’t etch the glaze.
If china has been previously mended, the edges of the breaks may be very dirty, and sometimes glue remains which is invisible except under a magnifying glass. All edges must be cleaned, and you must be sure they fit together before going ahead with the next stages of the job. First of all soak the pieces in boiling water with pure detergent added. Remember, if there is another part of the object which has been mended and which you do not wish to do again, to keep it out of the water or it may melt apart. Glue, Seccotine, shellac and Durofix will come off in boiling water, and joins made with these adhesives will soften sufficiently to be parted. If this treatment does not tackle the old glue then you will have to get to work with the appropriate solvents (see Solvents). Methylated spirits will shift shellac that has resisted boiling water. Swabbing with cotton wool dipped in amyl acetate removes cellulose adhesives such as Durofix. Acetone removes cements, but may take some time about it. Dissolver is a new solvent which will shift many kinds of glues including Araldite, especially some of those used for glass repairs.
Literally to boil a piece in detergent and water is a last resort to remove stubborn adhesive without abrasion. Finally it may be necessary to pick away at the old adhesive with a scraper or even a needle. Obviously this has to be done with care.
If old rivets have to be removed, cut them in half with a needle file and pick out the bits using acetone to remove the cement if necessary.
The first two methods are done with just a few tools, but the moment you have to drill, more complex tools will be necessary, and this means more expense, and also more time spent on learning to handle the tools. China drilling is not difficult, but it takes a light hand and a steady one, and infinite care and patience.
A power drill, which is normal workshop equipment nowadays, can be used with the rightbits for a lot of drilling work provided it has both vertical and horizontal bench stands and operates at the right r.p.m. The ideal tool for most drilling is a dentist’s drill—in fact an electric motor with a. flexible drive and a hand-held drill at the end. But this is an expensive piece of equipment not justified unless a lot of work is to be done, so its use is not described here. A hand drill and appropriate bits will needed for starting holes, and for the awkward holes. A special twist drill with high gearing can be bought for work on china, and some people prefer this to the other types. It is good for dowelling and for work in substantial pieces, but is a little difficult to control on really delicate work.
Brass wire is used for pins and dowels, and unless you arc doing very complex work only one or two sizes will be needed. Other standard tools such as the hacksaw, and calipers you may already have. Small cramps and a pin vice are useful, and all shapes and sizes of small files and rasps, scalpels, and probes. Various materials will be needed for making moulds, supporting pieces while they dry, binding to aid adhesion etc. These I shall mention as they conic into use.
Sticking. There is some general information on adhesives wider that specific heading. Here I shall discuss the various methods used for mending china with adhesives.
Ordinary domestic two-tube Araldite (AV and HV roo) is suitable for all practical purposes for almost any work. It is best used in a well-warmed room, and pieces should always be warm when joined. Keep the tubes of Araldite warm before mixing. All this helps the adhesive to flow readily, and to grip. A cold unheated workshop is not a suitable place. Work in a heated room with a radiator with a flat top or heat conductive shelf above it so that pieces can be kept warm.
The second important point, already stressed several times, is that pieces must be clean and dry. Pieces that have been washed or boiled to clean them may take quite a long time to dry out, especially the unglazed edges of breaks. Damp, dirty surfaces just will not adhere.
Thirdly it is vital to grasp the basic principle of adhesion, whicl, is to bring the original faces as close together as is physically possible, with the thinnest practicable layer of adhesive between. The edges and surfaces of the break then lock together naturally. It is a misapprehension to suppose that thick layers of adhesive will make more successful joints. All the adhesive that is needed is enough to fill all the tiny gaps and crevises between the faces so that the two present smooth surfaces to each other with no air pockets, and they will adhere.
Lastly, stuck joints need to have some pressure exerted upon then, while the adhesive is setting, either by clamping the pieces together, or by putting a weight on top of a flat piece, or more usually by binding the pieces together with gum strip (not Sellotape) in such a way that pressure is exerted on the join.
The methods of applying this binding
g differ slightly
with every mend. Always use gummed strip, and buy a big roll at least il” wide. Cut this down if necessary. Strips are stuck as nearly as possible at right angles across joins such as simple breaks in a plate or vase. When thc join is rather more difficult, such as a broken vase handle or lid, the strip is stuck on so that it will exert pressure at right angles to the join. The wet gummed strip is easy to put into position, and as it dries it shrinks, holds fast to the china and so exerts pressure on the join. When you reach the stage of placing the prepared pieces together, wet the cut strips of paper thoroughly but remove any surplus drips of water with a swab. They should be damp right through but not dripping wet, as moisture will prevent pieces from adhering if any gets on to the broken edges. Sometimes it is best to pre-stick the strip on to one piece of the work (after you have warmed the piece for glucing, or the gunimed strip will dry out completely) and then put the two edges together. Draw tile loose piece of strip down smoothly and tightly across the join. A little bit of practice at binding diffi llcult shapes will teach you how best these paper bandages can be applied. Remember always that as the strip dries and tightens it must pull across at right angles to the join, so bringing the pieces together and holding them there. Use very long strips if necessary. Make a cross of strips, stand a pot in the middle and bring the ends right up over the top to hold it together. Small
small
pieces of strip may be needed across very joins to exert pressure (see Fig. 7). A binding applied like a puttee round and round an object is almost useless except to keep things in place. The same binding techniques will be used when mending by dowelling and pinning, as described later, and a little thought and study will help you to work out the details for each job. Very occasionally it is not possible to bind, to clamp, or to weight pieces together because of a peculiar shape or a break in an odd place. Make supports out of plasticise or wire to push pieces together, or at any rate to hold them in position while the adhesive sets. No tension is applied to the joint so this way isn’t that satisfactory, but it is better than nothing. Don’t let plasticise come into direct contact with Araldite or any epoxy resin, as the two will react together.
Having cleaned your porcelain or china ready for mending, next check whether or not all the pieces arc there, whether or not they fit together perfectly, and then decide upon your method of restoration. Pieces made of thin China ai-c almost impossible to dowel or pill as there is no thickness to take drilled holes. Hollow figures may need to be dowelled in the hollow sections, or by pinning. But if there are sufficient clean, close fitting edges which will contact nicely, sticking alone may be all that is needed. Details of dowelling and pinning follow, but here I deal with sticking on its own. A piece which has been broken into several pieces should be very carefully checked for fit before applying adhesive. If necessary make tip a kind of jig-saw puzzle, using Sellotape and fit the whole thing together. Be careful not to work yourself into an impossible corner by putting the pieces together iii such a way that i lie last piece cannot be got into place. This can happen, for instance, in a bowl where the break consists of two or more pieces which arc wider at the lower end than they are at the rim end. If a piece is in several fragments it is sometimes easier to stick two or three pieces together to make one large piece, and then join this to the main piece. So do take a bit of thought, and be sure that you have solved the puzzle before taking any irrevocable steps (see Fig. io).
If, as well as being in several pieces, the pot has a Chunk missing, it will be necessary to mould a new piece, but first of all any sticking must be done mid finished, and the Moulding is later carried out as a separate operation.
Having cleaned the pieces, dried them and checked for fit, warm them thoroughly. Prepare a small amount of adhesive, no more than you need, and apply it with a knife to one edge of the two pieces to be joined. Usually it is best and easiest to apply the adhesive to the piece rather than to the whole. Put adhesive on both edges only if the fit is not perfect, or if the material of which the pot is made is very heavy thick porous earthenware, which will absorb a lot of adhesive.
Then bring the two edges together as firmly as you possibly can. Obviously you don’t want to break the china again, but exert as much pressure as you dare on the join so that the adhesive comes squeezing out. If you want to remove adhesive in order to get a clear look at the join through a magnifying glass to make sure it is properly aligned, moisten a water colour brush in a little methylated spirit and take off a little adhesive with that. Do not take it right down to the join as this will weaken it. Surplus adhesive should not be removed along the join until after it has all set. Any adhesive which has escaped on to other as yet unmende8 broken edges, or on to gilt or lustre glaze on the pot, must be removed at once with the paint brush. On the broken edges it will prevent proper matching if it dries into a little lump, and it will lift gilt or lustre when it is finally removed.
H.M.G. adhesive can be used in conjunction with Araldite to make a fairly quick setting join, by putting H.M.G. on one surface of the join and Araldite on the other. The quicker drying H.M.G. binds with the Araldite and helps to hold the two pieces together while setting takes place.
Then the joins are bound with gummed strip as described above. The piece is put down and left to set. Epoxy resins, especially when the join has been properly strapped, will hold almost immediately, and the pieces will not move in relation to each other unless the joins are imperfect or unless the balance and weight of die pieces are such that gravity pulls them out of place. Plasticine supports, bowls of fine clean sand, bits of wood and wire, will all make supports and cradles. If the piece to be joined is some kind of figurine and not a plate or a bowl with flat or curved surfaces, parts sometimes have to be stuck on entirely by balance. The heads of small figures frequently get broken off, and ifyou intend to stick a head back without dowelling, the fit along the break will have to be perfect, and the figure itself must be held in a firm grip so that the head will balance in place while the adhesive sets. Bury the figure in a bowl of sand, with the broken edge set horizontally just above the level of the sand, and then balance the part on it. Move the buried section about until the broken-off piece balances perfectly upon it. Make sure all loose sand is brushed away from both edges, and then, using very fluid adhesive, anoint the broken edges. Carefully put the piece back into place, and allow it a few moments to adhere before delicately, and without moving the buried base, setting it perfectly into position.
It really is a matter of trial and error, and with a bit of ingenuity you can find a solution to every problem of sticking and binding and balancing.
The final process of sticking when using epoxy resin glues, is to harden the joins by baking. If an entire piece has to be moulded in, after some sticking has been done, it is still best to bake the first work for a short while before doing the moulding, just to make certain that the work which has been done is really firm. Baking can be omitted entirely if the piece can be left alone for a good long time to set.
Up to a point the heating of Araldite softens it, and if you leave a job for some hours before baking and a piece has slipped a little out of place, warm the join with boiling water swabs to soften the Araldite enough to move the piece back into position. Leave joins made with Araldite for a few hours before baking and then place the piece in the oven of an electric cooker or of a solid fuel cooker. Put an asbestos mat on the middle shelf and place the china carefully on that, and keep the oven at a temperature of Zoo deg. for about an hour. Over 3oo deg. the Araldite will darken and in any case the china may not stand it. If your oven has no thermometer, buy a small one. If it is impossible to keep the temperature of the oven steady,heat the oven, put in the piece, and switch the oven right off, leaving the piece there until the oven is cold.
Mending Cracks ivith Adhesive. So often articles crack without breaking. The cracks get dirty, and the piece when touched vibrates a little and does not ring true. It may, one feels, collapse into pieces at any moment. Cracks can be repaired quite effectively without completely breaking the pieces apart. Most forms of pottery and porcelain are to a small extent flexible, so carefully insert the edge of a razor blade and part the crack a little. Clean the crack as described above and make sure that the whole piece is thoroughly dry by standing it on a radiator until it is pretty warm. Heat the separate tubes of Aralditc to get them runny and make up a mix, with a little white colouring in it if there are any chips along the crack which need to be filled. Mix the Araldite on a warm surface and keep it warm while working. My own nightstore type electric radiators which have flat tops, are absolutely ideal for this work and I work directly on top of one. This is not recommended by the makers of nightstore radiators but who cares about that !
Prise the crack apart with the razor blade as far as is possible without breaking the piece completely. If the crack runs right to the rim or edge of the piece, slide the edges of the crack apart a little, one up and one down to expose some of the broken edge. Run the adhesive right into the crack, work it in with a finger if necessary, then move away from the radiator and press the edges tightly together. Wipe off any surplus adhesive with methylated spirits, but not that exactly along the crack. Put several pieces of gummed strip across the crack at right-angles on both sides of the piece, and leave the whole thing to dry (bake after an hour if you wish to) for half a day on the top of the radiator. This should set the adhesive perfectly.

Tags: Adhesives, Araldite, arc, barrel base with lion head and paws legs, barrel base with lion head and paws legs style is, break, broken pieces, craftsmanship, designs from 1930, drill, epoxy resins, equipment, Fixed, form, grain, hydrogen, little bit, merits, method, origin, painstaking repair, pot, principle, professional restorer, repaint frame gold effect, repaint picture frame antique gold, replacing veneer on antique treadle machine, reproduction desks made in england, reproduction malachite furniture, reproduction porcelain urns with bronze, reproduction sideboards and hall tables chippendale sty, reproduction spanish oak hutch, research on antique clawfood tables, researching to see if my glazed clay vase is an atique, resin finish to look like glass?, restoring an elizabeth 1st x framed chair, restoring cracks in antique bowl, restoring cracksr in antique bowl, restoring fake marble resin effect table, revelry stoneware, rh macy antique tea set, rh macy antiques, rh macy brass bed springs, richard ginori, richard ginori primavera porcelain, richard ginori/patternnumbers, richard klemm meissen, ringtons tea palissy flower, robinson & leadbeater queen victoria statue, rocaille + cabriole legs, rocket lamp globe, rocking chair + gustavian furniture, rocking sofa no. 7500 gebruder thonet, rockingham porcelain numbers, rockingham porclain, rococco metal dressing table set, rococo antique corner three tier etageres, rococo game table antique price, rococo revival furniture, rococo servant, rococo table meissen stand, rococo textiles for upholstering, rococo walnut 2 layer extended didng table, rococo ware, roll and paterae symbol of ancient egypt, roll top desk evolution, roll top desk japan, roman column, roman drinking sediment, romantic dressing tables, ronson lighters, rope edged art deco furniture, rose inlay side table, rose marble furnitures chippendale, rosenthal selb 1945 tea-pot, rosewood 19th century chest of drawers how much, rosewood and ormolu sofa table, rosewood antique furniture table, rosewood deco chair lacquer, rosewood flower bird motif chair, rosewood pivoting top dining table ebay, round antique dining table, round art deco cabinet, round art deco cabinets, round back antique style mahogany chairs, scope, shame, shapes and sizes, state, table, technical colleges, technique, ultra violet light, xix century

ABRASIVES
In order to remove rust, tarnish or corrosion from metal  of all kinds, when soap and water, oil paraffin mixture, rust removers, metal polishes, etc. have failed or are unsuitable, abrasives are used. In order to get a mirror finish on metal the correct use of die right abrasive is essential. To all intents and purposes, as they get finer, abrasives become polishes. Damaged woodwork can be cleaned and tidied with abrasives, stains and blooms on varnish can be removed; and used in conjunction with paints and varnishes, abrasives help to get deep glossy finishes.
As a general rule, work is started with coarse abrasives and finished with fine abrasives.
There are many different kinds of abrasives, and each
user tends to prefer certain ones; it is not necessary to have
aof them in your workshop. Abrasives can be bought in
loose powder form, as cloth or paper, or in bar compositions for use with buffing tools.
For the purposes of this book it should be useful to describe briefly some of the abrasives and abrasive polishes available. In the various sections, abrasives are mentioned constantly iii respect of specific uses. When working with them, trial and error is the best guide, provided that trials are not carried out on such a big scale that the error becomes irrevocable. After a while an invaluable experience of abrasives and their uses will be built up. Abrasives such as sand and glasspaper, either in sheets or discs for power tools, are used for stripping down and smoothing wooden surfaces, and iii conjunction with paint removers or by themselves, to remove stubborn old paint and varnish. When using sheet sandpaper, glass-paper or emery paper, it call be folded round blocks of wood, or made into sticks by wrapping round pieces of dowelling etc. Discs for sanders on power tools are made in a multitude of grades and qualities, some very rough indeed. Spaced grit carbide discs are excellent for tough work, where scoring of underlying wood can be removed at a later date. Metal discs with tungsten spaced grit over them are almost indestructible and will remove practically anything, but are liable to do damage as well, and should be used with great care.
Sheets of sand or glasspaper are used on finishing power sanders which do not revolve, but work with a fast backwards and forwards action.
Wet and dry emery paper in various grades, so called because it can be used dry or soaked in water as a lubricant without dissolving into pulp, will help to impart a mirror finish to any object which is being painted or varnished. The object is rubbed down with wet anddry between coats until the surface feels perfectly smooth to the fingertips. The emery is used very wet and the lubricating effect of the water helps the emery to cut smoothly without scratching.
Steel wool in various grades is a very versatile material. In rough grades, in conjunction with strippers, it will help to shift paint and varnish. Used with metal polishes it will remove stubborn stuns on metals, and will help chemical rust removers to shift rust. Steel wool pads impregnated with soap are excellent for cleaning greasy metal or wood surfaces. Mirror finishes on wood call be rubbed down with fine steel wool, before waxing to achieve smooth shining but not over
glossy finishes. The uses of steel wool iY1 C011-
junction with wood finishing materials are many, and experience is invaluable. Grade oo or 000 is used for fine work. If you have a polishing lathe with interchangeable mops and brushes, or even if you set up a power drill to take small mops and bobs, you may wish to try liquid polishing compositions. These are equivalent to the bar compositions mentioned below and are intended to be sprayed on to the work as polishing is taking place. This requires special spray equipment so this method is usually only used commercially.
Emery powder, tripoli powder, rottenstone (a mineral found in Derbyshire and mixed with oil), jeweller’s rouge (powdered iron oxide), pumice powder (powdered volcanic lava), crocus powder, carboruriduni, and whiting are all abrasives commonly used in metal finishing, and can be bought in composition bars, either greasy or non greasy, for use with polishing mops and brushes. They are used moistened on soft rags, or on swabs made up on sticks, or on small brushes (old toothbrushes come in handy here).
Obviously care must be taken not to use too strong an abrasive for your particular job. Do not risk making deep scratches which will need even deeper abrasion to be removed, and as polishing proceeds, use finer and finer abrasives until a deep glowing finish is achieved.
ACIDS
Some acids make effective cleaners. They should always be handled with care; rubber gloves must be worn, and the bottles or containers must be carefully labelled, well stoppered, and kept out of the way of children. If you do spill acid on to yourself or your clothing, wash with plenty of clean water and then with water and bicarbonate of soda which is an alkali which will neutralise the acid. When diluting acid, alivays add acid to the water and not vice versa.
Hydrochloric acid. Also known as spirits of salt. Don’t let it get near stainless steel or other metals, except under control, for it will etch the metals. Nor should it touch nylon or any man-made fibres.
Acetic acid. Is the acid constituent of vinegar.
Oxalic acid. A poisonous acid which has many uses as a stain remover. In five per cent solution it will remove ink stains. Two teaspoonfuls of crystals in two pints of cold water will remove blood stains. In saturated solution it will remove black water marks on wood.
Citric acid. A ten per cent solution is sometimes used for stain removing.
Nitric acid. This is a strong fuming acid and if you get will
any on your skin it burn severely. Any slightest amount spilt should immediately be flushed and flooded with water. Skin should be held under a running cold tap. Very diluted, it is used for cleaning gilt and gilding. It can be used to darken soft soldering.
Oleic. Acid in an oily base.
Muriatic acid. Another name for hydrochloric acid. Accumulator acid. Diluted sulphuric acid used in the making of chlorine gas for bleaching.
ADHESIVES
The problems of getting one thing to stick to another have always loomed large for the restorer, especially when the two objects are not made of the same material. Luckily, new types of adhesive have been invented which will literally stick anything to anything. The strength of the stuck joints is also very important, and modern adhesives are so efficient that stuck joins can actually be stronger than any other kind of jour, and where, in the old days the glueing of joins of all kinds was used in conjunction with other fixing methods, dowelling etc., sticking alone is nowadays often sufficiently strong. Adhesives have become so strong as well as water and heat resistant, that it is really no longer necessary to rivet ceramics, and almost totally invisible stuck joints can be made in china. Adhesives mixed with colouring matters, pigments and powders, are used as Hers, thus becoming dual purpose materials (see under Cements and Fillers). Most modern adhesives have many uses and will stick a very wide variety of substances, but some are better than others for particular kinds of work.
Why things stick together is quite involved and difficult to explain. Theoretically, if you can bring two stir-faces together so that they touch all over their surfaces, they may stick together without adhesives. Two sheets of glass will sometimes adhere in this way and become extremely difficult to part. Even two sheets of shiny paper will stick together. I know a trick with a penny, which consists of drawing a coin sharply down a varnished wall surface, and snapping it on with a thumb. The coin will stay there indefinitely if the wall surface is all right. I suppose most of the air is expelled from under the coin, and the rim makes a perfect seal with the varnished surface, and die outside air pressure keeps die coin in place. There was a pub in Potter Heighain in Norfolk, called the Falgate, where the whole surface of die bar surround was covered in coins put there in this way. In fact my father put up the first one. Much later they were all varnished in to preserve them, but eventually the bars in die pub were enlarged and down came die panelling and the pennies. Yet few people would believe that no adhesive was used to keep the pennies up and many of the coins were there for years.
It seems that the function of an adhesive is to make the respective surfaces so smooth that they adhere. When using normal adhesives, as little as is consistent with covering the whole surface should be used, as too much just keeps the surfaces apart, and does not john them together. The john should then be put under pressure and left undisturbed.
All surfaces which are to be stuck together must first be thoroughly cleaned of old grease and glue, or rust, and the adliesive makers’ instructions should be followed carefully. Glues made from gelatine or old type animal glues, can be removed by soaking with warm water. Resinous cements are dissolved by alcohol, celluloid cements can be removed with amyl acetate or acetone. Dissolver will shift modern epoxy resin glues. Once the surfaces are cleaned they should have a rub with sand or emery paper, to make sure all glue is gone, and to give a key for the cement.
Scotch glue. Scotch glue has always been the traditional glue to use for woodwork, and it is still the best glue for veneer work especially where the veneer has to be smoothed or `hammered’ into place with the rounded end of a ball-peen hammer. Scotch glue can be bought either in cake, pearl or powder form. The glue is put into a proper glue pot with water, and left to soak overnight, which makes it swell up and soften. The glue pot is in fact two pots, one within the other. The outside one holds water, the inside one the glue, just like a double saucepan. The pot is put on to simmer and the glue stirred frequently as it heats. Don’t ever boil glue, just get it hot enough to run off the brush when you hold it over the pot, without forming tears. Scotch glue is used hot and is brushed well into the surfaces. It helps to warm the wood before applying the glue. All joints made with Scotch glue should be well cramped or weighted, so that any surplus is squeezed out, and the surfaces brought as close together as possible. Scotch glue is useless for joints or mends which will be exposed to damp, as it will not hold, and in time will even grow fungus. Santobrite call be added to Scotch glue to prevent the formation of fungus. Heat also melts Scotch glue and releases joints.
Durofix. Durofix is a celluloid cement, and is extremely useful as it is transparent, so that it can be built up in layers to form a self-supporting film to repair glass etc. (although acrylic resins have supplanted it for large-scale jobs of this kind). Glass repaired with Durofix won’t stand domestic handling, but for ornamental use it is good enough. One big advantage of Durofix is that it is a one tube adhesive and does not have to be mixed with hardeners.
Et,o-stile. Made in several different types, this is a splendid impact adhesive. Evo-stik Impact Household Adhesive is excellent for joins where the two surfaces may be brought directly together and left without movement until set. Where joins have to be slid together (such as a mortice and tenon joint), this adhesive is not suitable. When using Evo-stik, a coat of the stuff is put oil each surface to be joined, and is left for at least a quarter of an hour. The surfaces are then brought together correctly (no sliding about to get things right), and an immediate bond is made which in time is extremely strong. In fact if you try to break the bond, you may break the wood instead.
Cascattdte is a powder glue which is mixed with water, is good for woodwork, as is
Aerolite which is a powder and a liquid hardener, mixed together in the right proportions for a very strong resin adhesive.
This brings me to the modern epoxy resin two-tube adhesives which are fantastically useful and versatile. There are quite a few makes, and it is not possible to list more than one or two of all the adhesives available in this section, but I think I have mentioned enough to cope with most
jobs.
Plastic Padding. This is a two-tube adhesive and filler, which has a silver metallic colour. It has the advantage of drying very quickly—in ten or fifteen minutes—so that it is useful
will
where speed is helpful. It stick pretty well anything to anything, but its silver colour precludes its use where the join will show, or will not be painted over.
Araldite. In the two-tube pack (A.V. too and H.V. 100), Araldite is suitable for joining any of the materials listed below. All objects to be glued should first be cleaned, the surfaces being thoroughly degreased, then abraded, then degreased again before the adhesive is applied. Also it is important to make sure that surfaces are dry before adhesive is applied, so give them a few minutes in front of a fan heater or on a radiator; or put large objects in an airing cupboard for a while. If there is any paint or old glue on a surface to be joined, it must be removed with a solvent. Dissolver will remove Araldite if it has been used before.
Mix your adhesive on a small piece of glass with a palette knife. Keep some methylated spirit handy for cleaning up, as it will dissolve Araldite while it is still soft. It is important that the contents of the tubes never mix except as and when you want them.
When using two-tube Araldite A.V. ioo and H.V. i oo, warm the two tubes a little before measuring out and mixing the adhesive and it will be thinner, and thus easier to use, but may take a little longer to set.
For china repair Araldite A.Y. 103 and Hardener H.Y. 951 are very suitable because the mixture is thinner; it grips very hard and doesn’t need much pressure to get a good join. Because itis thinner it can be got into small cracks, and it fills all the requirements of unobtrusive adhesion. It is not quite so resistant to water and steam as the two-tube Araldite, so should not be used for repairs to china which is going into domestic use.
All adhesives nixed should be used within an hour as it begins to dry after that time and gets tacky. It is sensible to have a sticking session—collecting together and preparing all the mending jobs you have on hand to do at the same time. It is quite difficult to mix the exact small amount you need for one article and only too ofter, the whole family searches the house for things to mend to use up the adhesive. Left over mixed Araldite will keep in the freezing compartment of your refrigerator for several hours, even overnight, but do not try to keep it there indefinitely or you will end up throwing a useless little hard lump into the dustbin together with the container or sheet of glass to Which it has become firmly stuck.
It is quite simple to measure out the two-tube Araldite exactly because you can squeeze an equal length strip from each tube on to the glass. With the thinner types, measurement is by drops, oreven with two hypodermic syringes— although this would seem to be all expensive way of doing the job. Perhaps it is worth the investment if you are specialising in repairing things with Araldite!
Having mixed the adhesive, spread an even thin coat on each surface of the object, using a match or a rust free nail or a glass rod, and fit the two firmly together. Use gum strip to bind together a join while it dries (see section on Chita). Araldite takes twelve hours to set at room temperature, and three days to harden to maximum strength, but drying can be speeded up by heating, even by baking in a cool oven.
Drying time at 149 deg. C. (3oo deg. F.) 3o rains.
121 deg. C. (zso deg. F.)    i hour
79 deg. C. (175 deg. F.)    3 hours
Do not dry at over Soo deg. F. as at that heat the two-tube Araldite resin darkens.
To join the following materials (all must be degreased before and after abrasion):
Brass: Abrade with emery
Ceramics and Porcelain: Abrade with carborundum and water slurry Copper: Abrade with emery
Glass: Abrade with carborundum
Gold: Abrade with fine emery or crocus paper
Lead, Tin and Solder: Abrade with fine emery
Leather: Degrease with great care. Abrade with glass paper Silver: Abrade with fine emery
Steel and Iron: Abrade with emery
Stone: Abrade with a wire brush
Wood: Abrade with glasspaper
Pastes. Special pastes such as Gripfix, and photographic mounting pastes are most useful for paper work as they do not cause cockling or staining. Some photographic mountains have first to be painted on with a soft brush, and then, when the paste has dried for some minutes, the picture or paper is ironed on to its mount with a warm iron over greaseproof paper.
Paste for paper and leather similar to paperhanger’s paste, proprietary brands of which can be bought, are made up as follows: Recipe i.    lb. plain flour
oz. powdered alum
Mix with water to a cream, and then add a pint of cold water and heat in an enamel saucepan stirring all the time.
When using this paste for leather add a little thin Scotch glue. Keep this paste away from metal before use or it may pick up discolouring stains.
Recipe z. i teaspoonful plain flour z teaspoonfuls cornflour J teaspoonful alum
3 oz. water
Mix all ingredients together well so that there arc no lumps, bring to the boil in an enamel saucepan, stirring all the time, and boil for a minute or two till thick.
Copydex is an extremely useful white, rubber-based adhesive for all fabrics.
H.M.G. This heat and waterproof adhesive is good for some jobs because it is clear and quick drying, but it is not over strong. It can be handled for up to an hour, and goes totally hard in twenty-four hours. It does not slip, and is dissolved by acetone.
AMMONIA
Ammonia is a gaseous compound of nitrogen and hydrogen. It has the property in liquid form of turning grease into a soluble soap and so removing it. Used as a ten per cent solution in water it gets rid of dirt and grease, and some kinds of silver tarnish. It also makes glass and porcelain sparkle. It should never be used on bronze, and can lift varnish on wood. It is in fact, in a strong solution, quite a good varnish stripper (see Stripping).
Scrubbs Cloudy Ammonia is a ten per cent solution.
Ammonia solution is used for cleaning Ormolu (see Ormolu) and in a very dilute form, marble. A few drops added to beeswax and turpentine (see Beeswax) makes effective furniture polish.
ANTLERS
Antlers and horns, mounted on shaped boards—relics of our big-ganic—hunting grandfathers—are quite common junk objects. If it so happens that you do wish to restore such an object, clean the horns as suggested under Ivory and Bone. Fill any holes or chips with epoxy resin suitably coloured with kaolin powder and a little yellow ochre or brown dry powder pigment to match. Stick broken pieces back in place with Araldite, and put a wire core or pin in hollow broken horns, packed round with filler as described in the section on China Mending. The clean horns or antlers should be coated with a light wax polish to improve their looks. The backboard may need mending or completely stripping off, and repolishing.
Antlers which come complete with the deer’s head are more difficult to cope with if the head is in bad condition. A good brushing with Fullers Earth should clean the hair, but the repair of rotted or torn leather sections may be very tricky and take careful needlework. It may be necessary to re-stuff parts of the head. A good mothproofing is always advisable, so spray well with an aerosol niodiproofer, and an insecticide as well, if necessary.

Tags: abrasive, abrasives, Adhesives, advantage, air, animal, anything, blooms, bond, carbide, container, cupboard, Durofix, equipment, form, fungus, Furniture, grease, hammer, intents and purposes, invaluable experience, investment, leather, Lock, loose powder, match, metal polishes, method, mirror finish, old paint, old world replica antiques-french ebony & ormolu, one armed antique divans prices, opalescent glass drilled made in france, open rack, openwork marquetry, opium legs sideboard, orange chamber pot china, oriental drop leaf, oriental porcelain artist uses heart shape painted on b, oriental pyramid dresser, origin of art deco, origin of art deco example, origin of cylinder roll desk, original antique iron uk spring mattresses, original wood french dresser, origination of art deco, ormolu display cabinet value, ornamental animals made from tin, ornate 1965 electric silver urn, ornate tea table, otto wagner furniture art deco, otto wagner table, ottoman carpets, oval cheval mirror gilt paw feet, oval drop leaf gateleg dining table, oval walnut drop leaf dining table with gate leg, paint frame antique gold effect, paint removers, painted 1920's bedroom furniture, painted commodes louis xv, painted louis xv commode blue, painted rosewood tambour, painted satinwood table, painted tambour, paints and varnishes, pair demilune lacquer tables, pair of antique card table for sale, pair of robinson & leadbeater parian figures, pair regency carved mahogany bookcases, palmette border ottoman art, paper topped antique card chess folding table how to cl, parchment art deco furniture, parchment flowers designed chairs, parian for sale, parisean occasional tables, parker silver candelabra, penny, photo, plastic, position, pot, pressure, quarter, rivet, sandpaper, silver, soap and water, stains, table, trick, variety, varnish, water oil, wood, wooden surfaces, woodwork

The development of the rifle between the issue of the Baker t6 Rifle regiments, and the equipment of the whole of the infantry with the Enfield, is an interesting story myott & sons chamber pot ironstone china. It will be remembered that Ezekiel Baker’s design incorporating a rifling with only a slight twist, together with an easy-fitting and patch-enclosed bullet, had been criticized by Colonel Beaufoy makers names of antique pottery england.
Beaufoy’s theories, which are given in his Schloppetaria of 1808, were widely supported during the period of the Napoleonic wars, and had a considerable influence on the design of the sporting rifles which were manufactured after the end of hostilities drop leaf table with spiral turned legs.
Baker, as has already been said, had designed the weapon which he regarded as best suited to a military purpose; but he had never claimed any great accuracy antique clerk desks. In his Observations he says:
‘ I have- found two hundred yards the greatest range I could fire at to any certainty commode art deco. At three hundred yards I have fired very well at times when the wind has been calm jules leleu display cabinet. At four and five hundred yards I have frequently fired, and have sometimes struck the object; though, having aimed as nearly as possible at the same point, I have found it to vary very much from the object intended whereas at two hundred yards I could have made sure of the point, or thereabouts antique caquetoire chair.’
To Colonel Henry Beaufoy the acceptance of such a standard of accuracy was heresy lenci masks. He maintained that the first requirement in a rifle was accuracy, and that other considerations must be subordinated to this end wash stands for center bowl. No gunsmith disputed the fact that if one increased the twist of the rifling from Baker’s quarter turn to, say, a full turn in the same length of barrel, the gain in accuracy would be considerable antique drawleaf table. ToBeaufoy this proved the case for increased twist; and for a firearm intended for target or competition shooting it would be difficult to say he was wrong czechoslovakian porcelain. But in the case of a rifle intended for the rough business of war, or for the sometimes almost equally dangerous pastime of hunting big game, there were other considerations most expensive antique glass vase.
If the bullet were to be made to spin faster (which was the purpose of a greater twist), it must be a tighter fit in order to grip the grooves of the rifling antique rotating dumbwaiter. This ‘would make it harder, and therefore slower, to load, and the loading of the Baker rifle was already a much slower process than that of a smoothbore musket brass escutcheons shelves. Further, if the explosion of the powder gave the bullet too hard a ‘Punch’, there was a danger that it might not settle into the grooves, and thus strip the rifling paw pottery small candlestick. The charge, therefore, had to be reduced italian immigrant porcelain figures mantelpiece flatbacks. But this gave a lower muzzle velocity, and consequently entailed a greater elevation of the muzzle for a given range victorian kidney shaped dressing table with glass top. The flat trajectory which Ezekiel Baker thought so necessary for troops in action was thus lost 18th century knife boxes.
It is only just to Beaufoy to say that he finally admitted in his own book that the type of rifle he advocated was only suitable for target shooting 19th century mechanical desks. He had found by experiment that the accuracy of the full twist rifle depended on the barrel being cleaned -after every shot, and he was too much -of a soldier not to appreciate that this would be quite impossible in action curule sette federal period antique. Nevertheless Beaufoy’s views had gained such wide acceptance that they governed rifle design for some years, and their author’s ultimate proviso as to their limitations was either ignored or not appreciated edwardian period furniture construction.
The theory of a considerable twist in the rifling was, of course, fundamentally sound 20th century dining table england. The difficulty in putting the theory into practice, however, lay in the shape of 20th century dining table england. the bullet ?????? galles. A round bullet had no depth of contact with the rifling, and therefore even with the tightest fit there was little to hold it to the grooves 1800’s wood dresser with tulip engraving. british meubles.
The advent of the percussion lock increased ‘the difficulties of the gunmakers, for the more rapid explosion increased the velocity of the bullet and the consequent tendency to override or* strip the lands of the rifling regency rent table polygonal. Since a tighter-fitting ball did not provide a solution, the charge had to be decreased again old buen retiro porcelain. In point of fact the charge had to be made so small that the muzzle velocity dropped to the extent that a rifle of the normal bore lost most of its penetration and stopping power fall front timber writing desk. For sporting rifles which were to be used against big game, the gunmakers tried to make up for this loss in velocity by increasing the herculaneum stoneware for sale.size of the bore, and therefore the bullet, so that the actual weight of the ball should make up for its loss in speed tureen hague or amstel. The result was a clumsy and inefficient weapon; and rifles of this type had far less power of penetration than a smooth-bore musket of similar bore greek designs and motifs. It is hardly surprising that the idea of re-equipping the Army with rifles aroused little enthusiasm 1930’s austrian furniture.
Eventually, of course, the attention of designers turned to the bullet in an endeavour to find an answer to the dilemma sarcophagus chests andre-charles boulle. The spherical shape was retained, but different types of projections were formed on the surface which were designed to fit into the grooves of the rifling and so force the bullet to follow its intended spiral path the most common colours of egypt. The most popular of these was the two-groove rifling with a belted bullet which had been adopted for the Brunswick rifle looking for 4 feet wide drop leaf table. The popularity of this system shows that it was at least reasonably successful; but as applied to the Brunswick it was a dismal failure arabisque furniture in ny. Captain Berners, who is credited with the design, must have intended to adapt a proved sporting rifle to military use antique stretcher or refrectory tables. Some writers have said that Berners’ original design incorporated an oval bore; and it may be that the Brunswick as finally accepted was a modified form for which Lovell was responsible n hall norfolk.
The next development, to overcome air resistance and obtain greater penetration with the same charge, was a bullet with a pointed end antique metal table with leaves. This achieved the desired result, but with its comparatively low velocity it had little stopping power; and was-of small use against, for instance, the charge of a tiger small-footed bowls raozhou.
In an endeavour to combine penetration with stopping power experiments were carried out with explosive bullets antique furniture empire chest of drawers. These were of pointed or egg shape, and the main function of the charge in the bullet was to open out its nose on impact and give the same effect as a hit with a heavy round bullet 19th century english george pedestal sideboard. Such a bullet was, in fact, proposed for military purposes by a Captain Norton in 1824; but it was rejected somewhat indignantly by a Board of officers, one of whose reasons was that such a weapon was unfitted for civilized warfare oak revival chair “carved seat”. (It is unlikely, alas, that such a criticism could be levelled against Captain Norton’s bullet to-day giltwood.)
Trials with explosive bullets were carried a stage further in the remarkable series of experiments which were conducted in India by the famous General Jacob, who raised the Scinde Horse and who is commemorated by the town which was named after him, Jacobabad patek philippe, 1930s, rectangular, hinged back.
Jacob first tried to improve the shooting of the Brunswick rifle, and found that a rifling with four grooves instead of two, and a bullet with two crossed belts to fit them, -gave much better results austrian empire furniture style. The East India Company, however, refused to adopt his suggestion that the Brunswick rifles of the Company’s army should be modified accordingly art deco hamilton donald deskey mahogany cabinet.
Jacob, nevertheless, continued his experiments with the bullet to try and obtain even more satisfactory results classical architectural decorative motifs. In order-to get a better grip on the rifling he decided to use an oval ball with projections, instead of a round one french drop front desk. It was well appreciated by gunsmiths at this period that the greater the surface of a bullet which was in contact with the rifling the better the grip would be; and that in fact a long bullet with parallel sides would be infinitely better from this point of view than a round one antique two tier drop leaf table. But the difficulty was that the greater the contact the harder it would be to load the rifle, and it was considered that after a barrel had become fouled with firing it would be impracticable to push down from the muzzle any bullet other than a round one antique silver apostle spoons. Jacob, however, found his oval bullets satisfactory enough to go a stage further; and he produced a fairly easy-fitting cylindrical bullet with a pointed nose and four longitudinal strips to grip the four grooves of his rifling north west antique dresser. His next step was to fit this bullet with an explosive head antique sofa gate-leg table. This so-called ‘rifle shell’ was very popular with sportsmen, though it was rather inclined to explode on impact antique porcelain food warmer. However, the further development of the rifle shell had no influence on military ammunition antique rococo silver candlesticks.
Jacob also had rifles made to his own design plate art nouveau bright colors. They had short barrels of about twenty-four inches, a calibre of ‘577 or -524 inches, rifling of four deep grooves, and one complete turn in thirty inches antiques. None of the rifles was ever officially adopted, but they were used quite extensively in the Indian Army; Jacob’s own regiment, the Scinde Horse, being armed completely with them 18th century porcelain.
The next method of obtaining a grip on the rifling to become popular was by expanding the bullet with the force of the exploding charge are william and mary chest of drawers rare?. The first rifle to be a general issue to the Army embodied this principle 18th century desserts. Although of basically French design, the original inventor of a bullet of this type appears to have been the well-known Newcastle upon Tyne, and later Birmingham and London, gunsmith, W dining room table made from huge clock. Greener italian,furniture,maker,address. Greener’s bullet was oval with a flat base, from which extended a tapered cavity french bronze porcelain and silver inlaid clocks. Into the cavity was inserted a tapered plug, of rather too wide a diameter to be pushed right home escritoire 19th century stinkwood. The bottom of the plug terminated in a flat disc of the same chippendale knife boxes octagon.diameter as the bullet 18th century mass produced tableware. The explosion of the charge drove the plug forward into the cavity, thus expanding the bullet 1930 british chairs. Greener’s bullet was given an official trial in 1836, but was rejected on the odd ground that it was a ‘compound bullet’ large frosted glass reproductions nudes. In 1857, some years after the Government had accepted a rifle based on this very principle, belated recognition was given to Greener’s invention, and in 1857 he was granted the sum of a thousand pounds ‘for the first public suggestion of the principle of expansion, commonly called the Minie’ principle, for bullets in 1836′ vintage three leg table base.
Some years before the period when Greener was trying to get his bullet accepted, Captain Delvigne of the French Army was experimenting on rather cruder lines art nouveau austrian artists candlesticks. Delvigne’s method was to have a chamber of smaller diameter than the barrel, against which the bullet came to rest, and was then expanded at the base by repeated ‘blows from a heavy ram- rod makers of silver table ware in late 1800’s. A bullet so treated was naturally too unsymmetrical to be very accurate in flight painted sideboard pine maryland. In place of this rough treatment, therefore, it was subsequently enclosed in a greased patch, and a tight-fitting wooden plug was inserted between bullet and chamber 1954 antique floor standing ashtrays. Delvigne’s bullet achieved a reputation in a most spectacular fashion in the Algerian campaign-of 1938 french art deco ceramic marks crackle glaze. A battalion of the Chasseurs d’Afrique was equipped by the Duke of Orleans with Delvigne’s rifle and ammunition for service in Algeria under his command antique tables a gibier. On one occasion, when he was out on a reconnaissance, the Duke was annoyed by the provocative gestures of an Arab sheikh some 65o yards away recueil de decorations interieurs. He called out to his escort that he renaissance goldsmith process. would give five francs to any soldier who could shoot the Arab royall naples factory. A Chasseur armed with the Delvigne rifle promptly stepped forward and shot the irritating Arab through the heart art deco antique dresser.
Following another attempt by Colonel Thouvenin to make the bullet expand by hitting it, Colonel Mini6, an instructor at the School of Vincennes, arrived at much the same solution as Greener 19th century porcelain religious figural. Mini6 used a pointed bullet with a hollow base inlaiditalianoccassionaltable. Fitting into this hollow was an iron cup, which was driven forward by the explosion, so expanding the ’skirt’ of the bullet walnut side tables and lowboys. This rifle was immediately adopted by the French Army; and shortly afterwards the British Government purchased the right to use the invention for 42o,000 antique french empire.
The new rifle which was thus introduced into the British Army was entitled the ‘Rifle Musket, Pattern 1851′ empire console pier table. It had a 39-inch barrel, a calibre of ‘702 inch, and a rifling with four grooves which made a complete turn in six feet six inches berkey gay antique furniture. This was a much slighter twist than the Brunswick had rh vase austria. The rifle was sighted up to woo yards brannam pottery. A modification for ‘Sea Service’ was produced by the novel method ‘of rifling with three grooves the ‘768 calibre smooth-bore Pattern 1842 musket italian brass inlay sideboard.
As has already been said, the Mini6 was the first rifle to be adopted for the whole Army, though in point of fact it was superseded by the Enfield long before all units had received it antique bentwood rocking chair. It was an infinitely better arm than the Brunswick, but it was not entirely satisfactory antique italian inlaid buffet. It was first used on active service in the Kaffir war of 1846-52, and all the infantry battalions which left England in 1854 for the Crimea, except those in the 4th Division, were equipped with it vintage chinese porcelain with two swords marked.
The Mini6 rifle had only a short life, as the Enfield, which succeeded it, passed its trials in 1853, and production started immediately 1850s gateleg with butterfly leaf. The Enfield was far in advance of any previous firearms issued to the British Army and gave extremely good service davenport desk mechanism. The barrel was thirty-nine inches in length, the bore ‘577 inch, and the rifling consisted of three shallow grooves which made a full turn in six feet six inches stripped pine washstands kent. Sighting was UP to goo yards antique 5 legged table. There were various modifications of this standard type of Enfield theodore haviland limoges, france pre world war ii solid white body. Carbines were made for the cavalry and other mounted units, and serjeants seem to have carried a rifle with a 33-inch barrel antique drum shaped table. This short barrel had five grooves instead of three, and an increased twist in the rifling which completed a turn in four feet chamber pot and bed table. The additional grooves and greater degree of twist were an improvement, and this walnut marble slab dining. type of barrel was subsequently adopted for all Enfield firearms raoul lachenal france egyptian blue vase. The bullet was hollow based, and later fitted with a tapered boxwood plug prudent francois mallard new york. The boxwood plug was eventually replaced by one of baked clay german buffet furniture.
The production of the Enfield was rather peculiar italy flowers raised antique ceramics. Lord Hardinge, who was then Master-General of the Ordnance, invited the leading gunsmiths of the country to submit samples of their own rifles walnut marble slab dining. The best features of these rifles were then embodied in the new design luxury antique items.
Issue of the Enfield to the troops started before the end of the Crimean war, and it was first used on active service before the fortress of Sebastopol 1800’s reproduction dining room tables.
The Enfield is probably best remembered, unfortunately, as the rifle which was the immediate cause of the Indian Mutiny antique oak gateleg tables. The cartridge was still opened by biting off the end with the teeth; and the rumour was spread that the cartridge was smeared with a grease made from cow’s, fat and the lard of pigs 17th century tea tray. As cows are sacred to Hindus, and pigs are anathema to Mohammedans, the story, if true, would have serious effects on the religious status of soldiers of both classes of the community drapery designs for dressing table. No convincing denial was forthcoming; and, on the other hand, there appeared to have been some evidence, whether true or not, that the allegations were not unfounded silver plated corinthian hexagonal base three light candelabra. The results were disastrous reproduction rococo etagere.
Peculiarly enough, the Enfield rifle was issued to the Company’s army before the Queen’s troops had all received it reproduction mochaware. The result was that when the Mutiny started, although the new rifle was already in the possession of some of the mutinous regiments of the Bengal Army, many of the British regiments, including the 32nd Foot (later the ist Battalion of The Duke of Cornwall’s Light Infantry) who defended Lucknow, still had the smooth-bore muskets of Pattern 184′ - Later arrivals in the country all had the Enfield; and the following extract from the Indian Mutiny Journal of Private Charles Wickins of the ,90th Light Infantry shows the effect of the new weapon:
`We marched on fora few miles, when the enemy again began to show themselves in force on oup right meiji clock. We opened fire on them and, our Enfields being well elevated, we made them move at a distance of 12 hundred yards french oak, “barley twist” chest of drawers.’
Enfield rifles, together with other British rifled and smoothbore firearms, were imported in large quantities by both sides in the American Civil War of i $ 6 z-6$ italian creamware. The Confederate States alone bought 70,980 of the long-barrelled rifles, as well as a number of the short-barrelled variety, and also Enfield carbines, and some specially made officers’ weapons known as `Jeff Davis’ Enfields with checkered stocks and nipple protectors secured by chains mid century decor mahogany rectangle divided tray. In addition’, the armouries of the Confederacy made some copies of Enfields http:  antcollectors.com . One of these, first made at Arkadelphia in Arkansas and later at Tyler in Texas, had a calibre Of ‘54 inch and a barrel only twenty-seven inches long tudor rose design waterfall furniture. This weapon and a copy of an Austrian rifle of similar calibre were collectively known as Hill rifles, and some were marked ‘Hill Rifle Tyler C antique cutlery urns.S burr maple table.’, and others `Texas Rifle Tyler’ inurl:antcollectors.com . Closer copies of Enfield firearms were made by Cook & Brothers of New Orleans art deco upholstery. There were two of these: the 33-inch barrel rifle and the cavalry carbine japanned cabinets.
The latter had a 2 i-inch barrel and a nipple protector attached to the trigger guard by a chain chinese qing porcelains. When New Orleans was threatened by the advance of the Union forces the factory was moved to Athens in Georgia, and some of the arms are marked ‘Athens Armory’ drop leaf carved leg table with drawer. After the move to Athens the head of the firm, F great exhibition of 1851 aesthetic. W antique gateleg table with turned legs. C japanned antique chest-how to strip lacquer. Cook, raised an infantry battalion himself and was killed in action in 1864 drop leaf gateleg coffee table.
Though an excellent weapon for its period the Enfield was found to vary considerably in regard to the performance of individual rifles maryland antique sideboard. The difference was due to slight inaccuracies in the machining of the duncan phyfe drop leaf table.parts shu fu bowls. To try and find 19 century mahogany gateleg table. a remedy, Lord Hardinge, the Commander-in-Chief, in 1854 invited Sir Joseph Whitworth to carry out experiments with bullets and rifling king charles silver flatware. Whitworth was not a gunmaker, but he was noted as an engineer and for his work in precision machining and accurate measurement site:antcollectors.com. It appears that the first approach to Whitworth was made in the hope that he would devise machinery to solve the problem antique spanish talavera. However, Whitworth succeeded in persuading Lord Hardinge that a far more basic investigation was first required antique wood dressing screen ebony and ivory inlay.
In order to enable him to undertake his experiments, a Soo yards’ range was built at Whitworth’s Manchester home, and paid for by the Government prices for antique gateleg table. Since Whitworth had little practical knowledge of firearms, a well-known gunsmith, Westley Richards, was appointed as his assistant, and two Army officers were made available to help in the range tests and to advise on the military requirements “antique meissen porcelain”.
Two years of experiments resulted in the production of a rifle of Whitworth’s own design, which was tested against the Enfield in April 18 57 at the Hythe School of Musketry art deco marquetry plaques uk.
The Whitworth rifle was certainly of unconventional design antique divans. In order to reduce air resistance there was a considerable reduction of the bore; from the ‘577 inch of the Enfield, to a calibre of only -45o inch antique 54 empire table. The most remarkable feature, however, was the rifling late 1800’s dining table european. Instead of the usual grooves the barrel had a hexagonal bore with a twist which increased towards the muzzle modern dressing table designs. The first turn was completed in twenty inches antique spindle leg drop leaf side table. The bullet was of a similar hexagonal shape to the barrel, and was made of a specially hardened alloy rare antique drop leaf dining tables. It was impossible, therefore, for the bullet to override the rifling chinese influence to rococo.
The trial at Hythe resulted in an outstanding success for the Whitworth meissen, four continents. Sir J marcel goupy designs. E lotto design turkish carpet. Tennent reported the shooting of the competing rifles in his The Story of
the Guns, of 1864 rococo silver candlestick. He says:
‘The success [of the Whitworth> was surprising; in range and precision it excelled the Government [Enfield> musket three to one 17th century porcelain figurine. Up to that time the best figure of merit obtained by any rifle at home or abroad was twenty-seven; that is to say, the best shooting had given an average of shots within a circle of twenty-seven inches mean radius, at five hundred yards distance; but the Whitworth lodged an average of shots within a mean radius of four inches and a half from the same distance; thus obtaining a figure of merit of four and, one-half paw pottery small candlestick. At eight hundred yards it superiority was as one to four, a proportion which it maintained at one thousand yards and upwards russian neoclassical secretaire bookcase. At fourteen hundred, yards the Enfield shot so wildly that the record ceased to be kept; and at eighteen hundred yards the trials with it ceased altogether, whilst the Whitworth continued to exhibit its accuracy as before red lion furniture barker brothers los angeles.’
Nevertheless, with all the Whitworth’s remarkable accuracy it suffered from one very serious defect 17th century fashion in europ. Much fouling was accumulated in the recesses of the hexagon bore, which even a metal scraper failed to remove theodore haviland cherry plate. For this reason it was never adopted as a Service firearm; though the Rifle Brigade had it for a short time georgian telescopic silver candlestick.
As a match-shooting rifle the Whitworth was, naturally, a great success art nouveau origins. Its most famous appearance was on the occasion of the first meeting held by the then new National Rifle Association at Wimbledon in 1860 19th century folding breakfast table. The meeting was opened by Queen Victoria, and after the Address and her reply, the Queen went to a pavilion to fire the opening shot holophane verlys. Here there was a Whitworth rifle mounted on a rest and sighted on to a target 400 yards away french art carved inlay buffet. The Queen pulled a silken cord attached to the trigger and the bullet hit the target within one inch of the dead centre italy flowers raised antique ceramics. The iron plate with the mark of the Queen’s bullet on it has been retained at Bisley in commemoration of the event chelsea moons porcelain.
The Whitworths saw their share of active service, for a number were purchased by the Confederate States of America from the Whitworth Rifle Company of Manchester iranian brass oval trays. Presumably some of the hexagonal bullets were supplied as well, and perhaps owing to the Federal blockade it was impossible to replenish them what decade era antique inlaid diamond harlequin. At any rate the Southern troops seem to have used ordinary cylindrical hollow-based bullets without appreciable loss of accuracy 2009 chinese porcelain antique. The Union Generals Sedgwick and Lytle are said to have been killed by Confederate marksmen using Whitworths regency occasional table.
A very unusual rifle, the Lancaster, was adopted for limited use in the Army in 1855 1940’s english dresser   table clock. This was derived from a sporting rifle made by Charles William Lancaster of 151 New Bond Street in London rousseau shagreen. Its most striking feature was the complete absence of the normal grooves to provide the rifling secretaire desk antique. Instead Lancaster used a smooth barrel of slightly oval bore; or, to look at it in another way, two round and very wide grooves opposite each other antique dressing table with mirror and knee hole. The bullet was cylindrical with a conical nose and was made of soft lead meissen, clock, marcolini. The explosion of the charge forced this soft bullet to take up the shape of the rifling, giving a very close fit dark silver candelabra.
As a military weapon, the Lancaster was first issued to the ist Battalion The Rifle Brigade for experiment, and was used on active service in the Kaffir war late 1800’s dining table european. It was ultimately adopted as the firearm of the Corps of Sappers and Miners antiques trends 2009. The final Army version of the Lancaster had a A-inch barrel with the same bore of ‘S77 inch as the Enfield 1850s gateleg with butterfly leaf. The oval bore had a twist which increased towards the muzzle, and completed a full turn in six feet six inches pillars on casters. To avoid complications in ammunition supply it was used with the Enfield cartridge leleu furniture.

Tags: Captain Delvigne, cartridge, chamber pot, clock, colonel henry, Colonel Thouvenin, deco, decoration, desks, dining table, drop leaf table, Edward, enfield, England, equipment, frieze drawer, heresy, hostilities, interesting story, italian, jules leleu, musket, nathaniel whittock, psyche mirror, regency, Renaissance, rent, rifles, standard supports, swedish antique bedside cabinets, swedish art deco, swedish art deco dressing table, swedish art deco furniture designer, swedish bent wood mirror, swedish furniture design from 1920 -1970, swedish gateleg table, swedish inspired demilune table, swedish modern roll top desk, swedish wooden furniture, swiss art deco ceramic animals, table 17th century american tea table, table art nuvo, table by vilas, table en vernis martin, table pedastals, table porcelain castors value, table thonet, tables pulled sofa, tables tops made from antique chinese architectural pan, talavera wall pockets london, tall antique refectory table, tallboy dresser 1930, tambour cabinet doors desk, tambour cupboard sliding door england, tambour dining set, tambour front bedside tables, tambour front commode, tambour front sideboard black, tavern tables 18th drop leaf new england, tea chest abraham rontgen, tea table, teasets+longton+cromer+ad1858, technical drawing, technical drawing chest of draws, technical drawing extendable dining table, technical drawing of extendable dining table, tekke carpets large, tekke gul, telescopic dining table, telescopic leaf table, terracotta column coffee table bases, the decorative painters and glaziers guide, the farthingale chair has a spoon back, theodore haviland harrison rose pattern, theodore haviland matisse, theodore haviland new york pasadena, thomas affleck george iii, thomas chippendale sofa tables, thomas elfe chest on chest, thomas sheraton, thomas sheraton drop leaf tables, thomas sheraton round table, thomas sheraton table, thomas webb acid burmese posy bowls, thonet sling chair, thonet austria chair carving, thonet bentwood chair with stamped leather, thonet bentwood large dressing mirror, thonet chaise 7500, thonet chippendale chair, thonet raised relief seat, thonet round table, thonet style bentwood rocker covers, thonnet furniture, threaded epergne green, three legged table veneer splayed legs berlin, three seater canework sofa from ocean liner, three side drawer davenport desk, three tier antique table shield, tiefenfurt figure, velocity

The 1802 pattern musket was issued to the 43rd and 52nd Regiments (now the 1st and 2nd Battalions of The Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry) in probably 1803, and it may be that soon after, slow issue started to troops on the Home establishment as the muskets became available art and crafts of a dragonfly that have inspired designers. It is doubtful, however, whether many units had yet received the new weapon when Napoleon finally departed from the scene en route to St “making furniture”   armchair legs. Helena antique creamware tankards.
In spite of its slow distribution the- r8o2 pattern musket became the standard army weapon, and it appears to have been successful and well liked antique wood plate racks.
It was not only in the musket that the Nock influence was apparent antique square drop leaf table. A few years earlier, in 1796, the ‘Brown Bess’ carbines and pistols of the heavy cavalry (which a Board of General Officers considered ‘inconvenient, useless and cumbersome’) had been replaced by other patterns which were practically identical with the Nock trial models of 1785 but with gaudi roundel. conventional locks wells coates. They had 26-inch and 9-inch barrels respectively, both of musket bore rococo writing table.
A much more remarkable carbine was issued to the light cavalry in somewhere about 1800 gustavian furniture copenhagen. This was the so-called `Paget’ carbine, which is supposed to have been invented by Lord Paget, the famous British cavalry general mid 19th  century wooden furniture. It was noteworthy in two respects queen ann gate leg table. The barrel, of carbine bore, was by far the shortest that had ever been designed for a British carbine; being only sixteen inches, which made it a very light and handy weapon fora horseman orrefors blown glass & stemware & smoky gray. Of particular benefit to the mounted soldier, however, was the attachment of the iron ramrod biedermeier antique de. This was a link, known as a ’stirrup’, fitted near the muzzle, which kept the ramrod permanently attached to the piece, even when in use, so that there was no chance of the rod being accidentally dropped william iv “furniture”. This had always been one of the main troubles in loading firearms on horseback robert adams marquetry.
A pistol was brought out at the same time as the carbine, also with the ‘Paget’ stirrup ramrod, and the same lock as fitted to the carbine chippendale pedistal drum table. In other respects it was similar to the pistol first issued to the Light Dragoon regiments in 1759-
Both these ‘Paget’ weapons were so successful that they continued in use until flintlocks finally disappeared from the Army english ironstone pottery ltd.
Whilst Lord Chatham was worrying about the new musket, and the light cavalry was being equipped with its new ‘Paget’ arms, a much more important event was taking place in the history of British military firearms when were claw feet intoduced to teapots. This was the first official issue of a rifle to the British Army ” rococo revival” console english french.
It having been decided to raise an ‘Experimental Corps of Riflemen’ (later to become the Rifle Brigade), a competition was held on the 4th February i800 at Woolwich Arsenal to select a suitable weapon from models submitted by British, German and American gunsmiths antique spindle leg drop leaf side table. The winning competitor was Ezekiel Baker of Whitechapel in London antique czechoslovakia porcelain vase.
Ezekiel Baker had already been established for twenty-five years in his gunshop at 24 Whitechapel Road when he produced his winning design for a muzzle-loading rifled musket 19 c entree dish handle. He was originally apprenticed to Henry Nock, but was destined to surpass even that famous master antique george washington porcelain figures. At the time of the rifle trial he already held Government contracts for smoothbore muskets, carbines and pistols, and similar contracts from the Honourable East India Company antique dining table french regency.
Baker’s rifling was unique george 3rd italian furniture designer. Instead of the three-quarters of a turn which the Ferguson rifling had had, and which was still a normal twist on the Continent and in America, the Baker rifle had only a quarter of a turn antique italian baroque armchairs. In response to considerable adverse criticism of such a slight degree of twist, Baker justified his design on the ground that cutting down the twist reduced the friction in the barrel cherry gate leg rectangular table. This resulted in a flat trajectory for the first two or three hundred yards, and also made it easier to load the rifle drop leaf gate leg side table mahogany.
The length of the barrel and the calibre of the bore were at first the subject of considerable difference of opinion between Baker and the Board of Ordnance thonet rail styles. The military requirement was for a weapon which would have the standard light infantry musket barrel of thirty-nine inches, and the calibre of the smooth-bore musket, in order that the same-sized bullet could be used for all infantry elijah staffordshire figure. Baker accordingly made some rifles to these dimensions and demonstrated, as he had already contended, that they were far too clumsy for practical use splay leg sofa table. As a result it was decided to have a 3o-inch barrel with the standard carbine bore of 20 (a calibre of -61S) antique tables pictures. There were seven grooves in the barrel, as compared with eight in the Ferguson rifle art deco intended customers.
The Baker rifle was at first fitted with an adjustable back-sight; but this was soon discarded as adding an unnecessary complication for the soldier in battle italian clock marble antique hermle. Instead the rifleman was taught to aim at the enemy’s cross-belts for all distances up to Zoo yards, and at his head and shoulders for any greater range antique jugend style cupboard. As regards the accuracy obtainable with his rifle at such a target with the fixed sight, Baker has recorded a test which he carried out himself antique dutch desk. He put up two man-size targets, one at ioo yards from the firing point, and the other at Zoo drop leaf table with brass feet. He then fired thirty-four shots at the first target and twenty-four at the second dutch card table rosewood 18th century. All of them hit somewhere, though scattered over the entire body silver dishes. When these results are compared with Colonel Hanger’s remarks on the accuracy of Brown Bess, and the tests carried out on the same weapon by the Royal Engineers in 184 1, the vast superiority of the Baker rifle will be appreciated burslem yellow trellis ceramics. That is not to say that the Baker rifle compared in accuracy with the target rifles used by the great shots of the day; but Baker contended, rightly, that his rifle was suited to the military purpose for which it was designed wallendorf candelabras.
The standard carbine bore bullet was, of course, loose-fitting, but it was intended that it should be used in conjunction with a greased patch, which gave the necessary grip to the rifling covered bowl antique chinese doucai. Baker, in his book Remarks on Rifle Guns, gives a very interesting description of the way his rifle should be loaded art deco cigarette dispenser. He says:
`In apportioning the quantity of powder for a rifle one charge for all distances should be carefully attended to, and if the powder be good, I have ascertained that nearly one third of the weight of the ball, priming included, is the best estimate art deco writing table. After you have loaded the piece with powder, then put the greased patch of leather, calico, or soft rag, provided for that purpose, on the end of the barrel, as near the centre as possible, place the ball upon it, with the neck or tastable where it is cut off from the moulds, downwards, as generally there is a small hole or cavity in it, which would gather the air in its flight, but if this plan is adopted, and the smooth side always kept up%vards in the barrel, it will not be so liable to be obstructed in its passage through the atmosphere “serving table” antique ball claw. Great care should also be taken that the ball is in the middle of the patch of leather or greased rag, before it is rammed down the barrel; if it is more on one side than the other, it will give the ball an inclination, and throw it from the straight line on its leaving the barrel curved padded chair walnut. Both sides of the patch should be greased, in which case there can be no mistake, however hurried you may be in loading designing knock down furniture. A ball should never be forced down too hard, nor yet should it be too easy—I never found them go so true, as when properly fitted most valuable silverware. The ball with its patch should fit airtight, or it will not have the desired effect floral ornaments art nouveau. I do not mean that the ball should fit so tight as to require a wooden mallet to drive it in the nose of the barrel pine draw leaf coffee table 1920. When the 95th Rifle Regiment was raised by Government, which is now called the Rifle Brigade, I supplied them with a few hundreds of wooden mallets to drive in the ball; but they found them very’ inconvenient, and very soon dispensed with thern; in addition to which they became a serious incumbrance to the men, and have for some years past been entirely abandoned markings on antique candelabra.
‘The loading is, indeed, performed equally well without them, as a man’s strength is always found sufficient to make the ball enter, when it fits as it ought to do bread brand marks 18th century.
‘If the ball fits airtight, as it should do, it will require two or three pushes with the yammer before the air can escape (through the vent) to get it in its proper place 1960 period style coffee table designs with lion claw feet.
‘I do not recommend the ball, as I have before mentioned, to be bruised with the yammer, but pushed avant garde dining tables. If the ball has ragged edges, it will be much impeded, as well as thrown from its true direction by the air, more so than when in its globular shape, in the front part of the ball pearlware barley.’
In practice two methods were used to load the Baker rifle in action antique console. The one described above allowed a rate of fire of about two rounds per minute, which was, of course, considerably slower than the smooth-bore musket repair antique dresser drawers. For rapid fire in an emergency, however, the weapon was treated as a smoothbore rococo writing table. For this purpose a pouch filled with musket-pattern made-up cartridges was carried on the soldier’s equipment 19th century garden furniture. The paper was torn off, the powder poured into the barrel, the paper case then used as wadding, and the ball rolled down on top without using a greased patch 18 century display cabinets. This method had the disadvantage that the grooves got clogged up, and had to be cleaned out before the gun could be used as a rifle again drop leaf coffee table which raises to table height.
The greased patches for enclosing the bullet were kept in a recess in the right side of the butt, known as the ‘ patch box’, and closed by a hinged brass lid 17th century dining table. The first bayonet had the usual triangular blade though of eighteen inches in length inlay antique serving trays.But the hilt and fitting were entirely new 17th century dutch small cupboard value. Instead of the socket end, there was a grip with quillons narrow 9 feet dining table. The grip was slotted to fit over a lug at the side of the barrel, and was secured in position by a spring fixed in the slot stylized acorns. This pattern of bayonet was replaced by one having a flat single-edged sword blade twenty-four inches long booths chipendale turreen. The grip was of the same design, but a knuckle guard replaced one of the quillons antique liberary stands. The powder horn issued with the Baker rifle had a cut-off fitted in the nozzle which measured the correct charge of powder to pour into the barrel puce decorated 1756 cups. (The usual pattern of made-up cartridge, filled with the correct rifle charge, was also carried art deco ceramics.)
In about 1807 difficulties in ammunition supply led to the Baker rifle again being altered to musket bore, though the length of the barrel remained unaltered inurl:antcollectors.com . The result must have been disappointing, for the carbine bore was reverted to once more in about 1830 silver flatware wood handle.
Although the rifle was introduced into the Army as a weapon for skirmishers, there were numerous instances during the Napoleonic wars when its value was demonstrated for other military occasions italian antique small inlaid wood 18th century ivory. One such instance which occurred during the siege of Badajoz in 1812 is narrated by Major George Simmons:
`I was with a party of men behind the advanced sap, and had the opportunity of doing some mischief myott son compagnie. Three or four heavy cannon that the enemy were working were doing frightful execution amongst our artillerymen in their advanced batteries french meals 17th century. I selected several good shots, and fired into the embrasures east india company antiques. In half an hour I found the guns did not go off so frequently as before I commenced this practice, and soon after gabions were stuffed into each embrasure, to stop our rifle balls from entering swedish furniture 1930. They then withdrew them to fire, which was my signal for firing steadily at the embrasures bone handled fork converted to knive. The gabions were replaced without firing the shot glass table antique ceramic legs. I was so delighted with the good practice I was making against Johnny that I kept it up from daylight to dark, with forty as prime fellows as ever pulled trigger gateleg drop leaf table 19th century. These guns were literally silenced antique vienna porcelain vases.’
In Deane’s Manual of Fire-,Irms, of 1858, there is an account of the use of rifles to repel cavalry:
`When in 1812 the rear-guard of the Anglo-Portuguese army was pursued and attacked upon the retreat from Burgos to Valladolid by a numerous French cavalry, on which occasion two English cavalry brigades were porcelain wincanton. brought *into some confusion, the two light brigades of the King’s German Legion became also engaged with the French Dragoons dutch delph pottery marks. These battalions had been i000 strong, and one-third of these armed with the rifle antique ebony ivory jewelry boxes. But the judicious principle had been pursued by their commanding officers throughout the operations, to keep the rifled arms as much as possible by the battalions, for which purpose all sick, wounded, and other absentees from the ranks, left their rifles in exchange for a smooth bore musket antique pediment. Upon the retreat in question, the battalions were so much reduced in strength that the mounted officers could not be taken into the squares commodore perry corner cabinet. Almost all the men were thus armed with the rifle; yet did they, nevertheless, repel the frequently reiterated charges of the French cavalry; and his Majesty, the late Xing of Hanover, upon constituting from the debris of those battalions the present Hanoverian Jager Regiment of the Guard, conferred upon them, as a memorial of their brilliant feat of arms in the Peninsula, the permission to wear the name of the place (Venta del Poz6) under the royal arms burslem yellow trellis ceramics. Major Jacobi, of the Hanoverian service, in his critical remarks upon this arm, in 18,29, proved also amply, that even in its then condition, it yielded in nothing, in the hands of those who knew how to use it, to the line musket, with all its boasted celerity of fire burr walnut art deco dresser bakelit.
The accurate shooting of the Riflemen aroused, apparently, an increased interest in musketry throughout the Army myot t, son & cie. Even in the Volunteers emphasis was placed on weapon training and range practice imatation marble antique bedromm suit. This is well illustrated in a letter from Lieutenant-Colonel G arts and crafts hall bench. R black lacquer antique dining chair. Ainslie, half pay, Inspecting Officer of South Lincolnshire, to the ‘Officer Commanding Volunteers of Loveden’ swansea duck egg. Ainslie writes:
`I request that the corps under your command may practice with blank and ball cartridges, with all expedition robj ceramics. The number of the latter being so limited, the volunteers ought first to be taught to fire the former, and it is essentially requisite previous to target practice, that the officers narrowly observe whether any remains of a certain dread of discharging a musket (more or less) experienced by every man unaccustomed to firearms exists matthais lock furniture. I suggest the propriety of firing first individually and then by files, under the immediate, inspection of the officers of each company, who will instruct the volunteers and strongly inculcate the advantage of both levelling very low and keeping the firelock in a horizontal position for some time after drawing the trigger, to do away with the bad effect resulting from the piece hanging fire, and it is a well known fact, that a bullet always rises and will go through a man’s body after having struck the ground puce decorated 1756 cups. According to my opinion the soldier might almost invariably to take aim at the knee of his enemy nineteenth century gate leg table. antique silver baskets. 18 century porcelain placks louis xvi. leon and maurice jallot french dining chair. I repeat that too great attention cannot be paid to porcelintables. furniture by charles ashbee. ceramic alcora antique. levelling low and steadily taking good aim, and keeping his firelock (according to his Royal Highness the Commander-in-chief’s late regulations) such a length of time at the present, after drawing the trigger, that there can be no chance of hanging fire arabic style lambrequins.
` types of table legs 19 century. bugatti furniture range. royall naples factory. A certain proportion of the most active and best marksmen of each company should particularly be pitched upon to oppose troops of the same description of the enemy, and provide themselves with a stout gimblet, which by being run into a tree, gate, post etc chinese porcelain cockerels., etc pottery france incised initials rb contemporary., will afford an instant and ready rest for the firelock and put the volunteer on a par at least, with the Rifle-Man unprovided with assistance of the above kind, independent of the advantage possessed over the rifle by the firelock (viz antique pine drop leaf table rectangular.) of requiring not one third of the time necessary to load the former dutch delph pottery marks.’
That a smooth-bore musket fired over a rest was as accurate as a rifle fired without one is a claim that is not likely to have been supported by any practical results old metal tables with attached leaves. But no doubt the implied suggestion that the man with the musket was as well armed as one with a rifle was very good for morale; particularly in the case of partially trained troops antique card table withe one flap.
The number of firearms which were turned out by British gunmakers during the Napoleonic wars was phenomenal suzanne cowan potter. They amounted to some 31 million muskets and 30,000 Baker rifles federal desk. The muskets were required to arm not only the British forces, but also those of the foreign troops in British pay, and the various allies who joined in the war- against Napoleon from time to time tin glaze pottery makers. Some of these last were all too ephemeral, and many British muskets ended up in the hands of the French suzanne cowan potter. The number of Baker rifles manufactured was very much less, but even so there were enough to equip some Volunteer rifle units, as well as the Regulars tudor gothic furniture.
The complications caused by requirements of different types of ammunition have been mentioned already mid century decor mahogany rectangle divided tray. In the Peninsular campaign the standard musket bullet was the ‘Old English Service’ round ball weighing 141 to the pound, cornmonly referred to as the ‘ounce bullet’ french antique furniture eagle emblem. The powder charge for this bullet was 6 drams antique japanese bedside cabinet. For the heavy cavalry’s carbines and pistols of musket bore this charge was reduced to 51 and 31 drams respectively portuguese pallissy ware. The light cavalry carbines and pistols were of carbine bore, and therefore required a smaller charge marquetry tables.
breech-loading version of the Baker was tried by the Ordnance Board, and eventually issued to some of the Volunteer Rifle units antique extending round dining table. It did not prove sufficiently successful, however, to replace the Baker and was ultimately withdrawn antique cherry drop leaf tables. It was known as the Sartoris rifle, and had a hinged breech on very much the same principle as the carbine made by Durs Egg and described in Chapter VII chippendale modern interpretation. The defect of Egg’s mechanism, however, was remedied by an arrangement which locked breech and barrel together, instead of relying on a surface contact sheffield plate corinthian column candlesticks. A screwed projection on the breech fitted into a screwed termination to the barrel antique inlaid table birds. In both cases, however, the screwed portion was divided into eight equal segments, on four of which the screwed portion was cut away antique empire or regency style mahogany bookcase. On closing the breech, the threaded segments of the projection slid over the smooth segments of the barrel, and the smooth segments, similarly, over the threaded segments of the barrel american empire period furniture. One-eighth turn then engaged the threads of each and locked the breech 17th century cuboards. Both the longitudinal and rotary movements were actually made with the barrel 18th century music stand. This ingenious mechanism was excellent whilst it was clean; unfortunately after firing for a short time the fouling which accumulated was liable to jam the breech antique round oak dining table claw and ball feet.
During the Peninsular campaign the Light Infantry custom of browning the musket barrels was adopted, apparently, by most of the Infantry units of the Army, and the Baker rifles were all browned from the start antique puente pottery. It was presumably found that in the bright hard summer of the Peninsula the glint of the sun on massed musket barrels gave dangerous advertisement of military movements j s henry furniture. In the heavy cavalry, however, browning seems to have been become universal with the issue of new carbines and pistols in 1796 antique bread making furniture. In 1798 a receipt-was sent to all Colonels of heavy cavalry for ‘renewing the brown colour which may be rubbed off from the barrels of the carbines and pistols lately adopted spanish revival walnut console table.

Tags: and duncan phyfe have in common, antique wood, art and crafts, british carbine, british cavalry, carbines, cartridge, conventional locks, Deane, drop leaf table, effect, equipment, government contracts, gunsmiths, gustavian furniture, hepplewhite, inch barrels, infantry unit, Johnny, Major George Simmons, musket, plate racks, reign, smoky gray, training, viennise cecession furniture/prices, vilas dresser, vilas drop leaf table, vincennes porcelain candlestick, vintage, vintage furniture tallboy bottom cedar drawer, vintage 2 tier 3 legged carved edges pedestal table, vintage bookcase with pull-out writing desk and sliding, vintage brass frame value, vintage draw leaf table, vintage dressing table with curved feet, vintage end table with brass carved ladies top of legs, vintage gateleg table butterfly legs, vintage horsehair couch, vintage john widdicomb commode, vintage lusterware cruet and matching tray, vintage oak 5th leg table, vintage pine round drop-leaf table uk, vintage porcelain medical table, vintage sideboard/buffet with two curved doors and smal, vintage silver novelty spoon, vintage tablecloth border has numbered mark, vintage tiered claw foot table, vintage wood divided table open top, wells coates, what do chippendale, what does bobbin turning furniture look like, what elements defined the art nouveau style and why did, what instrument was painted on the english george iii m, what is a deux corps armoire, what is harlequin pattern sofa, what is the difference between elizabethan and jacobean, what is the hole in an sideboard used for?, what is the value of an antique hepplewhite chair, what period is tudor?, what should the back of an antique sideboard be covered, William, winning, wooden furniture, writing table

Hennem was requested to make thirty of his screwless locks for Durs Egg’s breech-loading cavalry carbines austro hungarian empire architecture .: and two months later he was directed to make ninety muskets to the design of the Master-General, of the Ordnance (now the Duke of Richmond) and to fit them with his locks chippendale drum table 2 drawers . On the ist October 1785 Major-General O’Hara, Colonel of the 22nd Foot (now The Cheshire *Regiment), invited Hennem to fit his locks to all the muskets in his regiment john widdicomb furniture/french provincial . O’Hara must presumably have seen and been extremely impressed with the 2oth’s trial muskets, for the alteration was a very expensive one to carry out under regimental arrangements amphora czechoslovakia . It must have looked to Hennem as if the future of his lock was assured, and yet it seems that O’Hara’s was the last important order that he had meubles decoration antique europe .
On the 22nd February 1′786 Hennem offered *to modify the stocks of Sergeant’s, carbines and to replace the existing locks with his own for an inclusive charge of 155 barley sugar twist pillars timber . -for each carbine george iii serving table . This offer was politely rejected with the explanation that a change of the firearms of the Army was under consideration small antique sutherland table . The change was due to a competitive venture by Hennem’s erstwhile backer or co-operator, Henry Nock delftware t.i holland .
Nock was one of the leading gunsmiths in both London and Birmingham ivan chermayeff, furniture . He held Government contracts for the manufacture of muskets and carbines, and produced, in addition, many ingenious and original weapons of various types brass frame girandole images . He designed, for instance, a ‘volley gun’ with seven barrels all fired by one hammer at the same time, and intended for Naval boarding parties; four- and seven-barrel revolving pistols; a heavy piece, or ‘wall-gun’, with a repeating action; and several others how much is a victorian dressing table worth . He was obviously the type of gunmaker to whom Jonathan Hennem’s lock would have appealed silver spoon design europe 18th century .
What the arrangement was between Hennem northern europe in the 16th and 17th century . and Nock is not known early 19th century upholstery fabric . It may be that Hennem was too independent a character for Nock’s liking pier roger vandercruse . In any case he had found an eccentric genius who had invented a lock which was somewhat similar to Hennem’s, though more complicated bulbous leg dining table . This was a mathematician named George Bolton, who at one time had been tutor to the children of George III 18th century silver mote spoon . He had devoted a large part of his spare time to the improvement of gun-locks; and seems to have established a gun shop in London in 1773 with another Bolton (F luxury art deco upholstery fabrics . H jennens & bettridge tole tray .), who was perhaps a brother rococo revival marquetry-inlaid wardrobe .
The Bolton lock also had no screws, and all its components were enclosed between two plates, of which the outer (in the position of the normal lock plate) was fitted with pins to hold the moving parts antique double claw pedestal dining room table . A special feature was the accurate machining to standard dimensions, which permitted the easy replacement of breakages antique inlaid pembroke table .
Nock seems to have acquired the sole rights in this lock, for most, if not all, of those made for the Government bear his name ‘H scheid enamel . Nock’ on the plate tripod table, claw and ball foot, antique . In, probably, 1785 Nock produced a new range of military firearms, comprising musket, pistol and carbine, which he submitted as suggested replacements for the Brown Bess series of flintlocks antiques furniture,josef hoffmann . Initially he seems to have* met with considerable success chinese porcelain wall decoration mask history . Trials carried out with his arms must have been satisfactory, for they led to a cessation of orders to Hennem, and a large number were issued to regiments of Horse and Foot for extensive trial turn top walnut tea/card table . Further, it does not appear that art deco consoles . ultimate approval was doubted, for a very large number of the locks were manufactured, and it is reasonable to suppose that these were intended for the conversion of existing flintlocks antique collectors cabinets . Nevertheless the Nock arms were rejected after only a short trial 1940’s art deco black and gray lacquer bedroom set prices . There must have been some weakness in the lock which led to it comparing unfavourably with the sturdy old Brown Bess under active service conditions apostle tea spoons made in england .
One of Nock’s most notable contributions to the development of firearms was the invention of his ‘Patent Breeching’ renaisance design dining table made .
It was too expensive a refinement ever to have been adopted for military firearms, but it drew attention to the advantages obtained by more rapid and more efficient explosion of the charge german 1930 furniture value .
It had been known for some time that if, instead of the ordinary flat-surfaced breech-plug, a special type known as a `chamber-plug’ was fitted, a more powerful explosion resulted antique double pedestal dining room table . In this form of breech the diameter of the powder chamber was slightly less than the bore of the gun, and the breech end was a rounded hollow cut out of the breech-plug 5″ antique rectangular drop leaf table with drawer . From the centre of this hollow was drilled a narrow channel, called the `ante-chamber’, which received a portion of the powder and which connected at right angles with a vent running outwards to the touch-hole of the gun antique brass mirror convex eagle . The idea was that the flame
from the touch-hole, instead of igniting a corner of the charge, “antique furniture” - writing bureau and display cabinet .9
passed through the ante-chamber and through the centre of the powder, thereby igniting all of it at the same moment 17th century antique trinket boxes . The greater power of the explosion resulted in a higher initial beilby glass prince of wales feathers newcastle . velocity of the bullet; in other words, the full force of the powder was exercised in a shorter distance types of bureaux . It was therefore possible to use a shorter barrel; and the barrels of ‘chambered’ pieces were from six to ten inches shorter than those of firearms with the normal pattern of breech characteristics of english medieval gateleg table .
The disadvantage of the ‘chambered’ gun was that the flame had to travel down the touch-hole vent and thence through the ante-chamber before it reached the main chamber; a considerably longer distance than the usual direct contact between touch-hole and charge cabriole leg demilune table . The flintlock already suffered from the delay between pressure on the trigger and ignition of the charge antique oval drop leaf dining table with turned legs . In ‘chambered’ guns it was much greater, and the sportman had little chance of hitting a fleeting target art-deco-1920-1930-wood .
Nock’s feat was to invent a breech which produced the same power as one fitted with the chamber-plug, and yet with less delay between the fall of the cock and the explosion than was experienced with the ordinary flintlock breech antique rectangle drop leaf table cabinet .
Instead of a hollow the Nock breech-plug had a deep cavity cut in it to receive the charge antique french cabriolet dresser . The rounded end of this cavity was connected by a very short passage to a wide ante-chamber cut through the breech-plug from one side to the other art decos exotic bronze chair . One end of this ante-chamber was closed by a screw, to give access for cleaning, and the other by a gold or platinum plug drilled in the centre with the touch-hole 18th century drum tables . Since in loading some powder fell through into the ante-chamber, and the passage separating it from the main chamber was only about -at inch, the touch-hole was as in close effective contact with the charge as in the conventional breech antique walnut dining table 10 foot . Furthermore, the powder in the ante-chamber was so closely confined that it exploded as soon as the flame from the priming powder reached it, instead of being set on fire first as in the normal piece turn a silver tray into a table .
The vast improvement in the performance of flintlock weapons which was effected by Nock’s invention has been rather overshadowed by Forsyth’s more efficient solution of the same problem with the percussion lock english antique trays .
SWORDS IN THE
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
Progress towards the standardization of swords throughout the Army was far slower than in the case of firearms jean rene prou furniture . Regulation patterns for musket, carbine and pistol had been introduced in the reign of King James II; but it was not till near the end of the eighteenth century that there was Army uniformity of swords 19th c english tin glazed pottery . Long before that there must have been similarity in the swords carried by regiments of the same arm of the Service because there was bound to be a limit to the number of types which the swordsmiths turned out, and these types would conform in general to popular military demand clock singer music candlesticks . Variations between regiments, therefore, would be chiefly minor modifications of the normal type in accordance with the taste of* the Colonels sofa carved top rail . The officers’ swords would tend to differ much more than those of the men, because being more expensive and privately purchased there would be little difficulty in satisfying even the most exotic requirements chinese porcelain decorators . But two factors would tend to preserve some uniformity: firstly, the Colonel of a regiment would often, probably, insist on his officers being armed alike; and secondly, the fashion of the moment is a very powerful factor, particularly amongst very young men value of primitive antique work bench .
After the end of Queen Anne’s wars on the Continent infantry soldiers still seem to have been armed with the hanger 19th century empire daybed . It appears, however, to have been exceedingly unpopular; probably because the possession of a bayonet would make a sword seem an unnecessary encumbrance meissen cris de paris . Several infantry units seem to have stopped wearing swords altogether, for on the 1st December 1724 an order was issued to the Army which by its wording inferred a widespread irregularity biedermeier candelabra . The order read:
`The King is determined to have all the N what is a double gate leg table .C macassar ebony furniture .O ironstone ware japanese willow .’s and men of His foot forces wear swords antique round dining tables with extensions .’
Nevertheless Authority was fighting a losing battle gothic arch furniture . Once the fighting troops have decided that a particular piece of equipment serves no useful purpose there is little chance of its being carried on active service weimar germany china antique . By the middle of the century many regiments had far less than their proper complement of swords, and some had none at all makers of antique table clock with music in china .
At some period Grenadier companies were given basket-hilted swords, instead of the usual brass-hilted hangers wardrobes 19th century . The Grenadiers of the 4th Foot (later The King’s Own Royal Regiment) had them in 1727, those of the 40th Foot were wearing them in about 1750, and a water-colour by Sandby shows the Grenadiers of the Coldstream wearing straight steel basket-hilted swords in 1747•
There does not seem to have been any material change during the- first half of the eighteenth century in the type of swords carried by infantry officers refectory table . In 1746 those of the 4th Foot had a steel hilt, and the scabbard was leather with steel mounts antique deco tub chair .
A typical cavalry sword of 1750, carried by both Horse and Dragoons, had a straight single-edged blade and a full basket-hilt 20th century furniture development in france . The pattern of basket-hilt varied from regiment to regiment, and those of the King’s Own Regiment of Dragoons, for instance, were of brass french animal chairs . The 3rd and 4th Irish Horse, instead of a straight blade, had one which was curved and slightly shorter than the normal kommode roentgen . The length of the blade was 31-1 inches and the breadth 1j inches gilt metal mounted pier table .
There is a Dragoon sword of about 1742 which is of interest as probably being of a fairly typical general pattern, and yet with distinctive regimental characteristics octagon mahogany antique table value . The blade is straight with a single edge and a length of thirty-six inches john walton antiques . The hilt is iron, but only half basket, and with a fishskincovered hilt bound with twisted brass wire how much would an antique clawfoot dresser cost . From the hilt hangs a buff leather sword knot with runner and tassel value of silver candelabra . The scabbard is of black leather, carried in a frog suspended from a shoulder belt 1980 scandinavian leather chair recliner barcelona .
In 1735 the drummers of the 8th Dragoons were distinguished by carrying scimitar swords; and in 1754 special swords were used to denote rank in the Royal Dragoons: brass-hilted swords being issued to serjeants and corporals 16th cent. sideboard .
When in 1755 a Light Troop was added to each regiment of Dragoon Guards and Dragoons on the British establishment, the Royal Warrant laid down that the men were to have `a short cutting sword 34 ins picture of pennsylvania house antique cherry buffet claw feet . long in the blade with a light hilt without basket’ penwork italian . This regulation was typical of the time in that it gave a very general specification and ample scope to Colonels of regiments to choose what they wished antique mahogony carved dressing table . The blade could apparently be either straight or curved and the hilt of any pattern so long as it was light and without a basket antique draw leaf tables . Captain Hinde, in his The Discipline of the Light Horse, deals with both the Light Troops and the subsequent regiments of Light Dragoons, the first of which was raised in 1759 confidante sofas . It is unlikely that there was very much change in the Light Dragoon sword between the time the Light Troops were raised and the formation of the Light Dragoon regiments; but at the time Hinde wrote the sword blade had been lengthened to thirty-seven inches old silver lustre myott . Hinde’s description of the swords carried by officers and men is given in Chapter V, and it will be- noted that the pattern of sword was still left to the choice of the commanding marquetry inlaid trays . officer seated harlequin with a tankard, johann kandler . An illustration in Hinde’s book shows a trooper of a regiment of Light Dragoons armed with a straight-bladed double-edged sword, with no hilt protection other than counter curved quillons indian antique tea kettles . In addition to the mounted pattern, officers apparently had a special sword for parades on foot verlys france . Of these Hinde says: ‘The Officers Parade Swords for Foot Duty, are about 28 Inches Long in the Blade, and worn in a Belt round the Waist’ antique side chair desk . Even the length of swords, however, does not always seem to have complied with regulations french 18th century bureau cabinet . Of his own regiment, the Royal Foresters, Hinde says: `Their Swords were remarkably Long, and quite straight’ makers of 1940’s american art deco furniture .
Farriers did not carry swords antique fold over table . According to Hinde: ‘They carry an Ax at their Left Side in a Belt of the same Colour of the Mens over the Right Shoulder, and a White Apron rolled back on their Left Side jupe patent extending dining table . When the Men draw their Swords, the Farriers take their Axes from, their Sides, and place the Handle on their Right Thighs Advanced, with the Edge turned towards their Horses Heads; they might carry a Saw on their Right Sides, in a Belt over the Left Shoulder, and a Spade in a flat Bucket under the Right deco tub chair . Budget, like the Carbines coming under the Right Arm art deco antiques contemporary world paris .’
Captain Hinde’s remarks on weapons may be fittingly concluded with his method of preventing arms from rusting antique american empire card table with scroll feet . This is as follows:
` antique furniture empire chest of drawers .d Receipt to keep Zrms from Rust nouveau art draws .
‘One Ounce of Campshire to Two Pounds of Hogs-Lard, Dissolve them together and take off the Scum; Mix as much Black-Lead as will bring them to an Iron Colour: Rub your Arms over with this, and let it lie on Twenty-four Hours, then Clean them as well as possible with a Linen Cloth, and they will keep without the least Rust for Six Months fold over tea table .’
The Royal Warrant of 1768, which dealt in detail with the clothing and equipment of the Army, made some attempt to secure reasonable uniformity in swords value staffordshire engine turned redware teapots 18th century . It laid down that the swords of each regiment were to be uniform and proscribed patterns and colours for sword-knots, belts, etc 19th century antique hall table ., and gold or silver coloured metal for hilt and scabbard appointments, according to the colour of the buttons old fashioned table brass metal claw feet on casters .
As regards the rank and file of the infantry the Warrant recognized what was practically a fait accompli empire card table . It said:
‘SWORDS antique card table withe one flap .
`All the Serjeants of the Regiment, and the whole Grenadier Company, to have swords spanish table antique turned legs . The Corporals and Private Men of the Battalion Companies (excepting the Regiment of Royal Highlanders) to have no Swords 16th century english joyned table .’
The Royal Highlanders (42nd Foot, or Black Watch) were presumably excepted because, like the Grenadiers, they wore the broadsword with basket hilt chippendale pinecone . The privilege was not appreciated, however, and the 42nd got into hot water for discarding their swords on the pretext that bayonets had proved far more useful in the American War 18th century antique gate leg table . However, the 42nd’s opinion of infantry swords seems to have received support from senior officers with war experience, for in 1783 they were given permission to return their swords to store french cabriole leg tracing pattern . The following year a Board of General Officers, which had been established to examine the soldier’s equipment in the light of the war in America, reported that Grenadiers had never worn their swords in action and recommended their abolition 19 century mahogany gateleg table . As a result swords were abolished throughout the infantry for all rank and file except drummers antique pottey work table . For these latter, the Royal Warrant of 1768 had specified ‘a short sword with a scimitar blade’; which was, in point of fact, a hanger vintage cherry table with queen ann legs .
Somewhat paradoxically the sword was about to become the principal weapon of the infantry officer at about the same time as it was being withdrawn from the remaining rank and file maurice dufrene, design .
The changes in officers’ shaft weapons is somewhat complicated 18th century occasional table . At the beginning of the eighteenth century captains and lieutenants of infantry had pikes and ensigns find 1954 crystal green tinted wine glasses . half-pikes telescopic table pedestal . In 1710, or thereabouts, captains reverted to the spontoon yuan muhammadan blue . At possibly the same time the lieutenant’s weapon was changed to a half-pike antique hanging corner display cabinet . In 1743 all officers of foot were directed to carry spontoons s s meissen mark . The spontoon was then the infantry officer’s principal weapon; but not, it seems, a very popular one gabriel viardot . That some difficulty was experienced in making officers carry it is shown by the following extract from an order book of the Brigade of Guards stationed in Germany in 1761-2:
`28th April rectangular table dressing . Colonel Thomas having remarked that the use of the espontoon is grown into a kind of disuse amongst the Officers of late, the naked sword or firelock being substituted in its room (a liberty which never used or ought to be allowed but upon emergencies), desires it may be resumed on all occasions in the Coldstream Battalion when it used to be!
The carrying of a ‘firelock’ was an adoption of the practice in Grenadier companies where all officers carried a light flintlock, generally a privately purchased weapon staffordshire figure prince “zebra” .
The American war finally dealt the death blow to the officer’s spontoon antique vargueno . Of the 63rd Foot in 1784, for instance, the Inspecting General commented: ‘Just arrived from America, where the officers never made use of espontoons; saluted with swords’ antique buffet sideboard signed by cabinet maker . Two years later the carrying of spontoons by infantry officers was abolished century pembroke .
Serjeants carried halberds for practically the whole of the eighteenth century, but in 1792 they were directed to carry pikes instead scandinavian aesthetic . This order did not in the first instance 1940’s mahogany dining chairs .apply to serjeants of Grenadier and Fusilier companies who, like the officers, carried flintlocks, but later in the same year they too were ordered to carry pikes meissen porcelain bronze . Serjeants of Light companies, who also carried flintlocks, were permitted to continue to do so english ironstone pottery ltd .

Tags: approval, Biedermeier, black leather desk chair with curved arms, black leather dining chairs with walnut legs, black mother of pearl lacqured sideboard, black patent art deco drawers, bloemenwerf chair, blonde mahogany 1940 dresser, blonde mahogany wood tables, blue and white porcelain drawer handles, blue and white porcelain etienne, blue anquite china set, blue bombe french provincial, blue ironstone pottery, boarding parties, bohemia china made in czechoslovakia, bohemian china czechoslovakia, bombe cabinet drawings, bone handled fork 4 prong engraved with vine and leaf d, bone handles for furniture, bone inlay sideboard, books on antique tables fromthe 18th century, booths china chippendale pattern, bottle buhle of glass, boulle bracket clock, boulle bureau plat reproductions, boulle chair, boulle furniture, bow antique china, brameld majolica, brandt 1901 furniture globe stand, brandt duncan phife table, brandt furniture empire sofa, brandt two tier end table, brass, brass antique footed mirror mantelpiece, brass claw foot 6 legged mahogony table, brass cornice 19th century, brass edge military chests, brass feet desk, brass feet pointed, brass on legs queen anne writing desk, breakfront china cabinet with fretwork yew or pine, breech, breech loading, britain 16th century antiques, britain furniture, candle candelabra 18th century, candle holder in stoneware from london, candlesticks glass 18th, candlesticksantique style, cantagalli blue cockerel mark, cantagalli majolica, cantagalli majolica display jug, cantagalli plates, capodimonte pedestals renaissance, caquetoire chair x frame, carbines, care of antique carved tortoiseshell, carlo bugatti, carlo bugatti cabinetmaker, century, chamber, cheshire regiment, clock, decoration, delftware, Dragoon, empire architecture, English, equipment, firearm, firearms, flintlock, foot, french provincial, George III, government contracts, Grenadiers, gunsmiths, hungarian empire, inch, infantry, infantry soldier, john widdicomb furniture, knives and plates, leather, manufacture, metal, muskets, o hara, passage, powder, purchase, Queen Anne, salute, serving table, silver, sword, Swords, uniformity, velocity

They were very similar to their predecessors; except that the metal furniture was now brass instead of iron, and the musket had a new lock with some minor modifications meissen porcelain louis xiv . The Royal cypher, when used, was the ‘A R’ of the reigning sovereign porzellan clock spain . The barrel of the musket was forty-six inches, or slightly longer than the James II pattern computers internet blog .
With the issue of these arms slings were fitted to all muskets for the first time trestle table lyre base .
The universal use of flintlocks in the Army, as well as on private firearms, resulted in the flint industry becoming of prime importance british longcase makers . It was a very ancient industry directoire sofa . The art of chipping, or `knapping’, flints had been practised in neolithic, times, when arrowheads, spearheads, axes, tools, etc cast regency period candlestick ., had been manufactured from the flint deposits at such places as Brandon in Suffolk antique neoclassical furniture side cabinet . For many years, however, there had been little requirement for flint, except for the comparatively low standard stone used for ordinary ignition epergne art deco glass . The arrival of flintlock arms created a new and increasing demand for high-quality flint marc duplantier . Nevertheless the process available was tedious and inefficient, and yielded indifferent flints indian vernacular furniture . Gradually the art was re-learnt, and by the end of the eighteenth century English flints had become famous throughout Europe antique hot water plate warmer . In 1686 a Government factory was established important pieces art deco furniture .at Brandon, and all flints for the Army were made there during the whole remaining life of flintlock firearms drawing ornaments for furniture .
Until the early eighteenth century flints were generally made from the brown flintstone which was gathered from the fields antique tables small . This broke rather easily, for its irregularity in grain made it brittle empire gateleg table . The much superior black flint was subsequently discovered at depths of from 5o to zoo feet, and from about the middle of the eighteenth century all flint was quarried antique paper mache pedestal table .
Flints were divided into different sizes according to the type of weapon sheriton clock . As far as the Army was concerned, these consisted of the musket, the carbine and the pistol; and they were each again divided into ‘Best’, ‘Second’ and ‘Common’ according to their quality, which was assessed by the colour of the stone (the darker the better) and by the regularity of the shape antique kidney table lion ball legs . A good flint knapper could gauge the size of a flint by the naked eye to within a sixteenth of an inch and could trim it to a chisel edge 18th century trestle table .
`Best’ flints could be expected to give from forty to fifty shots, without fear of a misfire, whilst ‘Common’ flints would only give about half this number ornate italy shell spoon . Most musket flints were the cheap ‘Common’ variety redwood trinket box .
Flints were sold by the thousand and were packed in half casks, which held 2000 of t1w musket size, 3000 of the carbine and 4000 of the pistol antique spanish sideboard .
In the seventeenth century it was the practice of both officers and other ranks to wear their side arms when off duty identify antique paper mache trays . When the bayonet was added to the sword it appears that there must have been some temptation to use this handy little weapon in local brawls with the civil population century furniture chinoiserie dining table chair credenza . This is reflected in the following order which was promulgated in 1687:
`For the prevention of mischief that may happen by the carrying of bayonets We hereby strictly forbid all officers and soldiers of what quality soever within Our pay or entertainment to carry a dagger or bayonet at any other time than when such officer or soldier shall be upon duty or under their arms upon pain of being punished at Direction of a Court Martial and the officers and commanders in chief of Our several regiments, troops and companies and Governors of Our Garrisons are hereby required to cause these Our commands to be forthwith read and published at the head of each respective regiment, troop and company that all persons may give obedience thereunto meissen figures on bronze bases .
`Given at Our Court at Whitehall the 4th day of March,
1686/7
`By His Majesties Command antique meissen porcelain .’
It is quite likely that this order was drafted personally by King James II furniture design . It is very like the tone of some of his letters dealing with military organization and administration antique posset pots .
Grenadiers and Musketeers seem to have worn swords throughout Marlborough’s campaigns draw-leaf tables . The armament of a Grenadier was particularly impressive; for it comprised (according to the Exercise of hoot of 16go) firelock, bayonet, sword, hatchet and grenades antique french campaign chair .
There is an interesting hint of regimental insignia on swords in a notice of a deserter in the Post Man in 1703 care of antique oak chest woodworm rot . The man belonged to Lord Lucas’s Regiment (later the 34th Foot) and is described as wearing a sword with brass mounting and an ‘L’ on the shell norman bel geddes desks . How far this was a common practice is not known sarcophagus chests andre-charles boulle . The detail on a sword depended entirely on the taste of the Colonel, and the swords for a regiment were, in fact, purchased by the Colonel out of the money allowed him by the Government for the provision of all clothing, swords and necessaries of the other ranks under his command antique maple drop leaf dining table .
The Duke of Marlborough would allow no weapon other than the sword to be used by mounted troops jupe patent mechanism . The pistol he regarded as the enemy of effective cavalry action antique victorian writing table . Brigadier-General Richard Kane, in his Discipline of Horse of 1745, said:
`They should handle their swords well, which is the only Weapon our British Horse makes use of when they charge the enemy; more than this is superfluous empire revival benches . The Duke of Marlborough would allow the Horse but three Charges of Powder and Ball to each man for a Campaign, and that for guarding their Horses when at Grass, and not to be made use of in action roman tripod table .
`Dragoons should be well instructed in the use of arms, having often occasion to make use of them on foot; but when on horseback, they are to fight as the Horse do sheraton period cutlery urn .’
The type of swords supplied to the cavalry, however, does not seem to have been beyond criticism baroque paper mache plate . In 1691 Sir Albert Cunningham, Colonel of the 6th Dragoons, wrote to the Secretary at War, ‘We want good broad cutting swords with three-barred hilts’ how drop leaf table evolved . In 1706 Colonel J designs for dressing table glasses . Crofts of the Royal Dragoons said in a letter that, ‘It was impossible to get flaming (i antique pembroke tables .e antique dining table stored legs . curved) blades but I pitched upon the best sword for service I could find’ antique duncan phyfe mahogany coffee table with brass claw feet . A year later his successor, Colonel St barrel leg oak dining table .-Pierre, wrote “chest of drawers” +cherry +1840s . ‘The swords are good, but a handfull too short, there is no dealing with the French but with good swords, they have excellent ones antique wooden handle forks . We are resolved, whatever it cost, if we come to Baralina and can find German blades, to buy them and put them upon our handles, which are large enough clarice cliff aj wilkinson teardrop plate .’
It is apparent that there must have been considerable variety in the swords carried by the cavalry japanese tray table w/ folding legs . There is a tantalizing bill of 1689 for a steel horseman’s sword with a rich gilt handle, apparently belonging to the loth Horse secession style furniture .
Towards the end of the seventeenth century there was some improvement in the gunpowder antique wood trestle table with leaves . The proportions were altered to six parts of saltpetre to one each of charcoal and sulphur antique console table carved wood . But the most noteworthy advance was in the quality of the saltpetre goldscheider ceramic figurines+made in austria. 1920 . Previously it had been chiefly obtained by the laborious and probably uncongenial task of washing out earth collected from underneath long-established dung-hills drop leaf table stable base . It was now imported from foreign countries where it could be found in a free state 3 leg drum table with leather top .
BROWN BESS
At some period in the earlier part of the eighteenth century there appeared the most famous weapon that was ever placed in the hands of the British soldier 3 leg drum table with leather top . This was the musket which became popularly known as ‘Brown Bess’ “edwards & roberts” furniture satinwood . The actual date of its introduction is unknown edwardian satinwood combination wardrobe . It*is popularly supposed to have been designed in the reign of Queen Anne 19th century mechanical desks . Nevertheless there is an old tradition that the musket was chosen by the great Duke of Marlborough when he was Captain-General and Master-General of the Ordnance german art deco porcelain harlequin . The earliest one known to the author is in the Tower of London, and bears the date 1717 on the lock plate 1920’s walnut buffet, four drawers .
The origin of the name is as much a mystery as Brown Bess’s date of birth, and there have been many theories to account for it antique gateleg card table . However, the ‘brown’ probably referred to the colour of the weapon, or part of it; and this was most likely the stock, which was of walnut wood stained a reddish brown 17th century drop leaf table . The stocks of all the British Army’s previous firearms had been black sofas . It has been said, also, that the barrel was browned by pickling in an acid bath asian chest with fake drawers . It may have been issued in this condition, but during most of the years when this musket was in use the barrel appears to have been highly polished; in accordance with the British Army’s normal practice with any piece of metal, unless ordered to do otherwise 1800’s library table . Bess’ may have been a mere term of affection; on the other hand it may have been derived from ‘buss’,a German word for a gun and used in ‘arquebus’ and `blunderbuss’ antique english tea tables .
That such a gun should acquire a nickname was, however, almost inevitable french oak, “barley twist” chest of drawers . It was noteworthy in two respects antique card table brass feet folding . It had the beautiful lines of the private fowling-pieces of the day, and, for ease of handling and for performance, it was the finest smooth-bore firearm in any army for the whole of its active existence antique hexagon ladles . These qualities undoubtedly earned the affection of the soldiers who handled it, and if troops become fond of a piece of equipment, maintenance and cleanliness present few difficulties antique wooden pot cupboard .
Of Brown Bess Mr glass front marquetry cabinet . Scurfield in a notable article on ‘British Military Smoothbore Firearms’, which he contributed to the journal of the Society for drmy Historical Research, says: ‘I have seen and handled many muskets of the eighteenth century, and have no hesitation in saying that for workmanship, handiness and appearance (much more important in those days than in these) the Old English musket was, as the armament of the “common soldier”, unsurpassed 1940’s marble tables . Compared with her predecessors and contemporaries, such as the French Model 1717, which was not radically altered until 1754, Brown Bess has the grace of a fowling-piece, the lightest stock compatible with capacity to stand up to a campaign, well-shaped moulded brass furniture, and a lock which had a reputation for giving fewer missfires, “flashes in the pan”, than that of any other military firearm georgian serving tables . Wherein lay the superiority of the English lock is now quite beyond ascertainment; but modern amateurs of historic arms, such as the late Major H vincennes gilded porcelain asian design . R 19th century lion claw pedestal table . S expensive marble tables . Brown, Mr 19th century apostle spoon . Mark Dineley, and others, confirm that it is less unreliable in igniting the charge than any other military lock they have experimented with anitque side cabinet .’
The barrel length of the first model was about 451 or 46 inches malard furniture . The bore was 11, or a shade over •75 calibre 18th c, hot water plate . The bullets vere 131 or 14 to the pound, which would slip easily down a barrel of this diameter a & s smee finsbury . The mounts were brass throughout jean dunand pottery . These comprised the buttplate, small shield (or escutcheon), side plate (on the side opposite the lock plate to receive the latter’s screws), trigger guard and four ramrod pipes apartment for milliner suzanne 1929 . The ramrod was of wood with a brass tip muller freres primavera . The butt-plate was a heavy moulded piece, and, in conjunction with the light fore-end, served to keep the balance of the gun fairly well back in spite of the long barrel small square drop leaf table with 2 chairs . The lock was of an improved type with a steel bearing, or ‘bridle’, to support the tumbler and prevent it from pressing against the lock plate antique wine cooler and stand . The escutcheon, which was on the top of the small of the butt, was primarily intended to take the screw which passed right through the small from the rearward extension of the trigger guard art nouveau cupboard . It was also frequently engraved or stamped with the company letter and individual number antique canning jars with good luck on them . The lock plate, which was of iron, bore the crowned Royal cypher, and, in addition, either the word ‘Tower’ or the contractor’s name empire drum night table . This was to become the standard practice for many years cabriole legs . Previously the Royal cypher had been, as already mentioned, limited in its use king charles silver flatware . The contractor’s name had sometimes appeared, but often the plate was devoid of any inscription gilbert rhode . The word ‘Tower’ indicated that the arm bearing it had been assembled at the Tower of London from parts supplied by contractors 1940’s art deco black and gray lacquer bedroom set prices . At a later period arms were similarly assembled in Ireland at Dublin Castle, and the lock plates were marked ‘Dublin Castle’ century furniture drop leaf table . Those arms made and assembled by contractors sometimes had the date of manufacture after the name of the maker 17th century georgian sideboards .
The bayonet was of the same basic pattern, with triangular blade, as that adopted in the reign of Queen Anne; but it was much improved matthew boulton roast cover . The socket was four inches long; and the blade length was now seventeen inches, and remained so until about z 70 spanish revival italian walnut trestle library table . The scabbard was of leather, and carried suspended from a cross-belt over the right shoulder baroque style depression furniture with walnut and walnut veneers . Another cross-belt over the left shoulder supported a cartridge pouch and two brass pickers for cleaning the vent silver tray with top .
The cartridge used with the Brown Bess musket consisted of a tube of stout cartridge paper, sealed at both ends with pack thread antique scroll maker . It contained six to eight drams of powder and also a lead bullet saxony flowers 1700s . antique octagon table with twelve legs . This type of cartridge had been in use for some time by mounted troops derby porcelain figurines mark r 1762 . The soldier bit off the rear end of the cartridge, squeezed a small portion of the powder into the flash-pan and emptied the remainder down the barrel art deco glass vase . He then inserted the bullet and rammed it with the paper cartridge on top as wadding antique chinese chamber pot . With this method of loading the soldier could fire about two to three rounds per minute; but the loose-fitting bullet ‘limited the range of reasonably accurate fire to some fifty yards making pottery . Various unauthorized methods of loading to ease the soldier’s task and speed up the rate of fire had been adopted with the matchlock musket at least as early as the reign of Charles I wodden chair dining table leaf design . The powder was poured into the barrel and the bullet dropped on top of it without the use of wad or ramrod antique mahogony carved dressing table . The charge was then firmed home by banging the butt on the ground winthrop china cabinet . Range and penetration, of course, both suffered double scroll legs desk art deco .
The same procedure was adopted with the flintlock, but as the powder used was fine enough to be used for both primer and charge, the private soldier, ever a genius at finding laboursaving devices, managed to eliminate another of the normal loading tasks early soft paste teapots . Having shut the pan after firing, he discovered that banging the butt on the ground not only consolidated the charge but also sent sufficient powder through the touchhole into the pan to prime the musket haviland france deco cup . The rate of fire was increased to from four to five rounds a minute, but there was a considerable proportion of misfires owing to insufficient powder reaching the pan, and the fire was horribly inaccurate wood antique tripod table glass top 1950 .
In certain circuirfstances loading with a loose bullet withoui wadding was a recognized practice, and was known as loading with ‘running ball’ antique gateleg table new york . Sentries’ arms loaded with running ball, for instance, could be unloaded by holding the barrel downwards and letting the bullet run out myott son & co blue hanley est: 1880 . If the wadding was inserted the only way of unloading was to discharge the musket gate leg table oak antique round .
Even Brown Bess, the best of smooth-bore muskets, could not compare in accuracy or speed of fire with the old English long bow greek marble console table . Colonel Hanger, in his book To d11 Sportsmen of X 814, said: ‘A soldier’s musket, if not exceedingly ill-bored (as many are), will strike the figure of a man at 8o yards; it may be even at a hundred; but a soldier must be very unfortunate indeed who shall be wounded by a common musket at 150 yards, provided his antagonist aims at him; and as to firing at a man at 20o yards with a common musket, you may as well fire at the moon and have the same hopes of hitting your object a dutch walnut and burr-walnut longcase clock . I do maintain and will prove, whenever called on, that no man was ever killed at 20o yards, by a common soldier’s musket, by the person who aimed at him antique empire table .’
In about 1841 a special test was carried out by the Royal Engineers to find out what Brown Bess could really do primevera crackle glaze bird . The results were not impressive art noveau furniture . The range of the piece was-an), thing from ioo yards to 700, according to the elevation of the barrel antique dining room table rectangle +connected double pedestal . At every elevation tried, however, there was at least a hundred yards’ variation in the possible range, and at some elevations this exceeded 300 yards bronze chair french . At iSo yards a target about twice as high and twice as broad as a man was hit three times out of four art deco writing sets . At any greater range, even with the musket fixed in a rest, this same target was not hit at all regency card table value . At a range of 2 5o yards a target twice as wide again was fired at, but of ten shots none registered a hit and no one discovered where they went goldscheider figures women . This test certainly bore out Colonel Hanger’s contention, In addition to the inaccurate shooting of the flintlock, there were always some misfires; and in a lengthy test carried out in 1834 against a percussion musket these worked out at i in 6-1pL burr walnut art deco dresser bakelit .
Nevertheless, for the close-order fighting, short ranges and volley firing of its day Brown Bess was a great weapon; and few viewed its supersession without regret
It was not till 1794 that any new pattern musket was introduced, but as this event took place during the Napoleonic wars, when firearms were at a premium, there was no question of Brown Bess being withdrawn from service antique walnut tall boys . In fact, the old musket must have been in the hands of a large proportiop of the British infantry until the reduction of the Army after the battle of Waterloo 17 century dining tables .
The modifications which were effected during this long career were comparatively few ” american card table” . The most important was the reduction of the barrel length to forty-two inches somewhere about the middle of the century islamic arts ivory inlaid wood cabinet . However, there was no immediate replacement of the forty-six-inch barrel muskets, and some of these were undoubtedly still in service at the time of the American War of Independence antique music stand london . Mr rent baroque wood carving furniture . Scurfield, irx citing the evidence of American students of military affairs for this, mentions an interesting theory as to the use of the long muskets square walnut and burr elm coffee table . He says: ‘Several such amateurs have informed me that among arms left in the United States after the Revolution are a number of extra long firelocks which they describe as “British Grenadier Muskets” wedgwood forgeries . I see no reason to doubt the accuracy of this statement, except perhaps spanish revival italian walnut trestle library table . that part of it which links the long musket with Grenadiers; although my informants were knowledgeable collectors of arms, it may be a romantic embellishment 1940s enamel chronographs .

Tags: arrowheads, Baroque, Battle, bow, cabriole, candlestick, combination, Dragoon, equipment, flintlock firearms, flintlocks, flintstone, gateleg, grenade, gunpowder, half stool, horseman, industry, instance, jacobean caned bench, jacobean carving famous people, jacobean chair bench, jacobean chest of drawers, jacobean chest of draws, jacobean corner chair, jacobean court cupboard, jacobean dining table, jacobean end tables, jacobean english oak cabinets, jacobean furniture, jacobean hand carved english oak tables, jacobean oak furniture, jacobean revival furniture armchair, jacobean trestle tables, jacobean turkey work, jacobean wardrobe oak furniture, jacobean x frame chair, jacobethan tables, jacobian antique, jacobian atique cabinet, jacobian cedar chest, jacobian dining table, jacobian furniture, jacobian legs, jacobian mansions conversion, jacobian period, jacobian period furnishings, jacobian peroid, jacobian side table, jacobian tables, jaeger le coultre bellows novelty clock, jan emens mennicken, japan landscape carved antique table, japanese - peony ware collectors, japanese arita 19th dragon bird, japanese cabinet legs, japanese carved furniture from 1940's, japanese collectors chest, japanese display cabinet, jasper ware glaze or unglaze, jerome american bracket clocks, jerome gothic clock civil war, john henry belter bed, john skeaping wedgewood, john widdicomb, john widdicomb antique, john widdicomb chinese, john widdicomb circular stool, john widdicomb collectors, john widdicomb commode, john widdicomb cupboard 2 sliding glass door, john widdicomb desk, john widdicomb drum table, john widdicomb furniture, john widdicomb furniture archives, john widdicomb iron board desk, johnstone jupe & co, jointed blanket chest antique17th century, josef hoffmann bentwood table, josef hofmann succ. austria, juchtzer meissen, jugendstil, jugendstil antiques, jugendstil chairs, jugendstil decoration, louis xiv, musket, muskets, neoclassical furniture, organization, origin, pistol, powder, private firearms, purchase, regency period, royal cypher, seventeenth, six inches, Swords, trestle table, vernacular furniture, workmanship

SWINEFEATHERS apostle spoons .
Top: A Swinefeather and its Case antique gateleg extention table .
Bottom: Combined Musket-rests and Swinefeathers antique spanish sideboard .
Dragoon—A flintlock (not a silver tripod table . matchlock) musket (which I hold much better for dragoon service, being upon occasion they may be able to make use of their snaphaunces on horseback, and upon any service in the night they may go undiscovered’); a belt to hang the musket on; a long tuck; a swinefeather identify furniture legs 1930 .
THE BIRTH OF THE REGULAR ARMY
With the restoration of the Monarchy the large and well-trained army of the Commonwealth was disbanded rococo medallion sofas . But from it, and from the exiled followers of the new King, was formed the British Regular Army art deco china cabinet . It was only a small army: a mere handful of regiments of horse and foot porcelain jug representing the four continents and a queen as europa . Its requirements in equipment were therefore comparatively small, and easily satisfied from the vast stocks of military stores which were available after the disbandment of Cromwell’s troops regency sofa . The King was far too poverty-stricken to provide his Army with more modern arms; and thus through the whole of his reign the troops were armed with substantially the same weapons with which the Civil War had been fought dining room table with white pillar legs .
The first scale of arms for the Army is contained in two contemporary documents gothic iron garden seat . In a M leaves for old oak table? .S latter carving on pembroke table . book which contains the establishment of the Army as it was formed in 1661, it is laid down that:
`Each horseman to have neoclassical regency furniture period . palissy dishware . marquetry semi-circle drop leaf . a sword, a case of Pistolls, the Barrells whereof to be not under fourteens inches length, and each Trooper of the Horse Guards is also to have a carbine 19th century regency furniture . The Musquet of every Musquettere is to be three feete in length in the Barrell, And the Bore to bee for Bullets of twelve in the pound, and each Pikeman to have a Pike made of Ash not under sixteens feete in length Head and Foote included antique furniture 1800 .’
Two years later the ‘Orders and Instructions’ of the Sth May 1663 directed that: antique gateleg table small . upholstered desk chair with cabriole legs . bob-box century . each Horseman to have what is a harlequin pattern . black leather armchair for desk . antique writing utensils . A sword, a Case of pistolles, the barrells whereof are not to be under fourtecen Inches in length, and each Trooper of Our Guards to have a Carbine, besides the aforesaid Armes, And the foot to have each Souldier a Sword, and each Pikeman a Pike of 16 foote long and not under, and each Musqueteer a Musquet, wth a Collar of Bandaliers, the barrell of which Musket to be about foure foot long, and to conteine a bullet fourteen well shall weigh a pound Weight antique black irish dresser .’
Whilst these documents are in substantial agreement, there is a surprising difference iii two lengths given for the musket barrel antique cherry drop leaf tables . Four feet was the normal measurement, but it may be that when the Army was first formed some relaxation was allowed in order that some of the non-standard arms available could be issued antique bookshelf design . As regards the apparent differences in the musket bore, one of these probably related to the nominal bore and the other to the actual weight of the bullets swansea duck egg .
There are two further points of interest: a trooper of the Horse Guards carried a carbine as well as two pistols; and the pike had been reduced in length to sixteen feet song dynasty bluish green glazed earthenware .
The eventual doom of the pike was heralded in two extracts which appear in Book W 5 leg antique table .O antique stemware+cobalt blue . 47/5 in the Public Record Office:
4 14 March, 166,2 antique english dressing table . Ordered that the french pikes and ye short swords or Byonettes that lately were recd finmar aalto artek . from Dunkirk be surveyed & an accompt presented to the office of their defects to ye end a Contract may bee made for their speedy repaire antique bedroom furniture with fan brass handles .’
4 17 March, 166-2 console tables tubular uk . Ordered yt ye Byonettes lately recd from Dunkirk to be issued to the psons foil antique wood inlayed wine cellaret photos . to be by them made cleave and repaired & returned with io daies space at rod ape antique chinese carved wood nest of tables .
It would thus appear that Soo bayonets were obtained from France, and that they had already seen hard service and required overhauling japanese antique boxes . Bayonets were already issued to at least part of the French Army, for in his oval loudon floral 1783-1843 .4rt de la guerre Puys6ger notes their use in 1647 valuable antique basketry marks . They were plug bayonets with handles and blades which were both twelve inches long classic furniture.dwg . It is probable that Charles II or his officers had seen and admired them in France, and it may be that this worn lot were obtained either very cheaply or as a gift from the French King cabriole design .
The plug bayonet apparently originated in the short, broad-bladed knife which was carried by hunters, and which had a round handle which could be fitted into the barrel of the gun in an emergency what is a double gate leg table .
The trial of the bayonet in the British Army was evidently a success; for a Royal Warrant of the 2nd April z 67 contained the following:
CHARLES R antique draw leaf dining table .
`Our Will and Pleasure is, that a Regiment of Dragoons, which we have established and ordered to be raised, in Twelve Troopes of fourscore in each beside officers, who are to be under the command of Oure most deare and most entirely beloved Cousin Prince Rupert, shall be armed out of Our stores remaining within Our office of the Ordinance antique paintings of trinidad west indies . gillows decorating firm . king george sofa table with iron lion legs . the soldiers of the several Troopes aforesaid, are to have and carry each of them one match-locke musquet, with a collar of bandaleers, and also to have and carry one bayonet or greate knife angouleme dihl .’
After this initial issue to one regiment, the adoption of the bayonet throughout the Army seems to have been somewhat slow george scheidt enamel . This was only natural, as the combination of musket and pike was a well-tried one in the infantry, and, war being a dangerous pastime, there is always an understandable reluctance to replace proved weapons by new and to act as escort to the artillery, and the light fuzil was better suited to their particular duties than the cumbersome matchlock mahogany coffee tables that incorporate a glass display case in centre . It will be noted, however, that the fuzil, although of carbine bore, was built as an infantry weapon, for the barrel was of matchlock length swan plate kandler .
Rests still formed part of the equipment of the musketeer, but they were seldom taken on active service, and were generally only used for ceremonial parades and duties carved african tripod table with chess board .
The introduction of Grenadiers into the new British Army marked the recognition of a weapon which had proved its value in the Civil War imperial gateleg table with japanese decorations . Explosive hand missiles had been used in warfare for very many years, but they were crude in manufacture and fairly ineffective in use first antique table de chevet . Those first used in the Civil War were also of doubtful value antique regency furniture . The filling aperture was generally closed by means of a wooden plug, in the side of which was a slot so that one end of a piece of slow match could be pushed into the interior nineteenth century gillow chair . The other end of the match was lit before the grenade was thrown wedgewood stoneware . The disadvantage of this method was that it was difficult to judge the correct length of match antiquite dressers . If it was too long the enemy often had time to throw it back again before it exploded sheriton roll top antique bureau . If it was too short it exploded in the air or even in the thrower’s hand maurice dufrene, design . The difficulty was surmounted by a most ingenious device antique extend side table . The wooden plug, instead of having the single slit, was bored with several holes chicken coups made into dressers . Into one of these a piece of match was inserted, and a bullet was fastened to the end inside the case sofa french 4 legs . Twigs were pushed into the other holes to act as a rudder like the feathers of an arrow and ensure that the match was kept to the rear during flight antique carved trestle table . When the grenade hit the ground or target the momentum carried the bullet forward and the lighted end of the match was pulled inside the case so causing the explosion walnut escritoire .
The grenades adopted for the Army in 1677 were better made and designed, but the percussion-ignition system was retained antique sideboards and buffets 1920 dutch . The military grenade weighed about 21 pounds and was 2-1 inches in diameter italian wood armchairs .
The subsequent life of grenades spanish vargueno . in the Army was comparatively short were exports scenes common in the chenghua period . During the eighteenth century they gradually dropped out of use; probably owing to the introduction throughout the Army of efficient flintlock weapons flatware forks types . The trench warfare of the Crimea brought them back into favour: and then they reappeared for some reason in the Sudan in 1884, But it was not till the First World War that the prestige of the grenade was restored to the level which it had acquired in the late seventeenth century antique drop leaf painted table 1800 .
Officers and sergeants of the infantry were still armed primarily with shafted weapons edge simplicity tub chair . These, however, were as much a symbol of rank as for serious use english stoneware marks . In 166o captains carried pikes, but by 1680 they had eight-foot spontoons antique hepplewhite sofa . Lieutenants started by carrying partizans, but in 168? they received pikes instead antique,dinning room table,gateleg,drop leaf . The sergeants were armed with halberds, which they retained until very nearly the end of the eighteenth century vintage gateleg dropleaf table .
In spite of the introduction of bayonets, musketeers were still equipped with swords american oak drop leaf table antique . Whilst there was no regulation
ti
pattern, something more serviceable than the rapier had gradually been evolved, with a straight cut-and-thrust blade and a simple guard with counter curved quillons, one of which was usually extended towards the pommel to form a knuckle bow paris style art deco desk .
It does not appear, however, that swords were popular with musketeers nancy galle furniture . According to the French writer Louis de Gaya, in his Traitl des armes of 1678, the English infantry seldom drew their swords but preferred to use the butts of their muskets at close quarters renaissance italian furniture style a bambocci and cupboards . This is understandable, since, without dropping the musket, the effective use of a sword must have been a difficult matter louis xviii style furniture . De Gaya was a captain in the Regiment of Champagne, and probably fought alongside the troops of King Charles II on the Continent antique double claw pedestal dining room table .Somewhere about x685 a sword with a short curved blade was introduced in supersession, or partial supersession, of the long straight-bladed sword antique english queen anne china cabinet with cabriole legs . This new weapon was known as a ‘hanger’ christening bowl used for . The blade was single-edged, curved towards the point, and about twenty-four inches in length art dec countries . The hilt’ was brass, and consisted of a rather flat double-shell and knuckle bow 19th century furniture archives . The grip was generally of wood and bound with wire boulle card table .
The first troops to be equipped with the hanger were the Grenadier companies of the infantry regiments; and it appears to have been, in fact, the first sword with which they were issued kem weber furniture designer prices .
The rapier was worn by officers long after it was discarded as an other ranks’ weapon, and it was probably carried by infantry officers during most of the reign of Charles II antique oval table with middle drop leaf . The sword which gradually replaced the rapier was of a somewhat similar type to that carried by the musketeers mahogany dining table cabriole legs . The blade was generally straight and intended for both cutting and thrusting antique little silver . The hilt was brass, and the guard comprised quillons and knuckle bow aaron burr desk .
From about 1685 officers of the Grenadier companies were armed with fuzil and plug bayonet, and thus carried neither sword nor shafted weapon 1800’s library tables .
At the end of Charles II’s reign privates of Horse and Dragoons had a sword with a straight blade and a steel full basket hilt inexpensive antique wardrobes . The blade was generally about thirty-eight inches long and sometimes double-edged universal statuary co mirror .
An improved method of carrying powder on the infantry soldier began to make its appearance during the 168o’s antique mahogany fretwork hanging cabinets . The bandolier, with its suspended and clattering wooden chargers, made silent movement by a body of troops virtually impossible sheffield plate 19th century . In its stead there was introduced a cartridge pouch, in which was placed a supply of made-up paper cartridges; each containing the requisite amount of powder (but not the ball) for one round of ammunition chamber pot cabinet commode 1800 . Such cartridges had already been in use for some time for the carbines and pistols of the cavalry antique book ends .
MARLBOROUGH’S ARMY
Charles II was succeeded by his brother, James II, a first-class administrator, who proceeded to expand the Army and to forge it into an efficient fighting machine repaint ceramic lamp .
One of the first results of the new regime was the production of a new scale of firearms to replace the many worn-out antiques which were still in service french makers of consoles gibier style 18th century . The effect of this was to give the Army a fairly standard armament, and, for the first time, regulation designs rococo writing table .
The new musket could be fitted either with a matchlock or a flintlock austro-hungarian +antique +furniture . It was a very substantial and heavy weapon lion head sphinx paws revival art chair . The* barrel was 451 inches long and made of very thick metal important american girandole mirror . The stock was painted black, and the barrel probably `russeted’ maples of london cabinetmakers . The matchlock was fashioned something after the style of a flintlock; the pan and cover being attached to the lock plate instead of, as previously, to the barrel petite french mantel antique clocks . The flintlock too was an improvement on its predecessor; the befter-designed lock which had been fitted to private arms for many years past being substituted for the old crude military lock classical revolving bookcase . Many of these muskets, as well as the other new firearms, bore the Royal cypher, J2R with crown over, on the lock plate antiquevenercoffeettableclawfeet . It has been suggested that this was a privilege restricted to the Household Troops and the Royal Regiments, and that it was not extended to all arms until the reign of George II antique mahogany rent table .
Matchlock muskets appear to have been issued only to the battalion companies of the infantry italian spider leg table . Fusilier regiments, Grenadier companies and Dragoon regiments had flintlocks paris exposition candlesticks . Muskets issued doric china longton england .to the Grenadiers were usually shorter and stouter in the barrel than the standard type 19th century bavarian side chairs . Some of them were fitted with steel grenade cups for firing grenades antique austria 1855 - 1953 statues . (A practice which was to be revived in the war of 1914-18 czechoslovakian lustreware .)
It was probably intended that as soon as economically practicable matchlock muskets should be converted to the more expensive flintlock william kent eagle console . It is likely that the battle of Sedge-moor was the last action in which matchlocks constituted the bulk of the infantry armament antique japanese tea table mother of pearl . By 1700 there can have been few, if any, matchlocks left antique brass mirror convex eagle .
All carbines and pistols were flintlocks staffordshire william kent . The former were lighter and smaller versions of the muskets with a barrel length of thirty-six inches boulle furniture . They had a steel suspension ring which moved on a ‘traveller’, or iron bar about world war 1 antique shovels . ten inches long, and was connected to a swivel and runner on the carbine belt antique octagon oak table . Pistols had a fourteen-inch barrel 4 section antique cutlery box .
The new muskets were issued with the plug bayonet regency pedestal desk buhl marquetry . This, of course, had the dual disadvantage that when it was fitted in the barrel the musket could not be fired, and when it was not so fitted the musket was not a close-quarters weapon antique 19th mahogany hepplewhite card table . These limitations led to the disaster of Killiecrankie in x689, when the English infantry were caught by the charging Highlanders in the process of fixing their bayonets into the musket barrels value of empire style china closet 1910 .
As a result of Killiecrankie, experiments seem to have been made with the ‘ring’ bayonet half tester bed . This was fitted to the musket by means of two rings which passed over the end of the muzzle and the grip of-the bayonet covered bowl/antique chinese doucai . General Hugh Mackay claimed that he invented this after the battle of Killiecrankie; but Puys6gur says that a regiment of the French Army had these bayonets in 1678 antique chests of drawers south wales .
The ring bayonet does not seem to have been a success; but the next invention, the socket bayonet, was 18th empire furniture . In this type the blade was attached to a short tube or socket which slid over the muzzle end of the musket barrel baroque rationalism . Socket bayonets suffered from the same initial trouble as the ring bayonets, that the external diameter of musket barrels varied too much to provide a standard bayonet which would fit even the majority of them american art deco bar furniture . Plug bayonets had a tapering handle and could thus be thrust into any barrel antiques table clock 1700 . In an effort to remedy the trouble bayonets with a socket split lengthwise were made, the idea being that the diameter of the socket could be adjusted to the size of the barrel which it was required to fit barley sugar twist pillars timber . Some antique display . of these were issued to Killigrew’s Dragoons in 17o6; for their equipment schedule lists: ‘Split socket bayonets to serve over a full bored musket’ antique china carving furniture .
Pikemen finally disappeared from the Army in 1702, and thereafter all private soldiers of the infantry were armed with musket and bayonet william iv furniture . The situation as regards the latter was, however, somewhat chaotic care of antique oak chest woodworm rot . An Ordnance Board report of 1706- says: ‘All the regiments raised since the disuse of pikes (1702) have provided bayonets india brass table tray . dutch delph pottery marks . biedermeier antique de . at their own charge 19th century 5 legged table . Few of the officers agree in the sort of bayonets fit to be used or in the manner of fixing them as may appear by the various sorts there are of them in the Army modern oriental writing bureau .’ It is probable that throughout the wars of William III and Anne most units were still equipped with the plug bayonet holland and sons ivory marquetry . But the socket bayonet must have been in fairly extensive use; for the Ordnance records of 1704 show that socket bayonets had been sent to Portugal, although 3000 plug bayonets were available in the Tower stores 17th century oak tables .
The blade of the socket bayonet appeared in a number of different shapes before a 1800’s library table . standard type was finally adopted england biedermeier chest of drawers . This was triangular in section, tapering to a point, and with two of its sides deeply grooved, or ‘fullered’ glasgow art nouveau antiques . With various modifications this triangular socket bayonet remained as the standard Army weapon until 18 8 8 19th century drum table examples .

Tags: antique tables, apostle spoons, army art, Baroque, barrells, blade, bow, british regular army, cabriole, carbine, crest and acanthus leaves and cabriole ball and claw fe, dining room table, drop, drop leaf, equipment, four continents, furniture legs, garden seat, gateleg, Gothic, kneehole dropleaf bureau, kommode mother of pearl, korean porcelain, kraak plate, laburnum veneer, lacquer birds eye maple furniture italy, lacquer mother of pearl motif sideboard, ladies chair 1600, ladies claw foot mahogany desk, ladik rug carpet with root painted, lambrequins made of wood, lancashire elm dining chairs, lancaster glass "panelled oak" sugar, lancasters limited creamware figure, lantern clock pillars, large antique drop leaf table, large antique drum table collectors, large antique regency bedside tables, large classic ottoman rug, large english draw leaf table, large irish peat bucket, large sabino vases value, large seamed 18th candlestick square base, large table casters, large welsh dressers, late 1700 century dropleaf tables, late 1700 pembroke tables, late 18th century oak buffet with carved apron, late 19 th century english pedestal desk, late 1920's walnut dresser, late american art deco furniture, late edo period folding chair, late georgian ceramic urns, late georgian picture frame, laura knight ceramics, leaf design wood carving brass inlays antique octagonal, leaf design wood carving gilt inlays antique octagonal , leafy pottery jug and painting in middle, leather dining chairs with arched/curved back, leather walnut staal, lecoultre a10, leon albert jallot france, leonard candlestick, leopold stickley cherry valley dining table with ladder, liberty pugin credenza cupboard, light color marble occasional table, light oak tallboy thin chest of drawers 8, limehouse porcelain factory, linseed oil finish vs epoxy resin finish for gunstock, lion foot cherry wood coffee table with drawer and leav, lion head carve on a antique table, lion paw desks, lion's foot casters combined, lion's head chest of drawers, lion's paw foot furniture, lion's paw writing table, lionpaw furniture period, lisbon faience albarelli, Louis XVII, manufacture, matchlock musket, method, military stores, palissy, pembroke table, pillar legs, regency furniture, reign, semi circle, seventeenth, supersession, sword, wood

This is the story of the weapons used by the British soldier throughout the ages, and the many developments in personal arms during the course of history, and the reasons which influenced their design. It starts at the Battle of Hastings in which the seeds of the British army were sown, and it ends with the short magazine Lee-Enfield rifle which served the British Army through half a century and two world wars.
It is interesting to learn that in the days of chivalry the weapons of the aspirant to the order of Knighthood were placed at the altar and were never to be used save in defence of honour, virtue and justice. The hilt of his sword was the emblem of Christianity, and to this day the pressure of his lips on the Cross is commemorated in the officer’s salute. It is facts such as these which help to explain the fascination which hand weapons have for so many.
From military arms have descended their counterparts in the chase, in sporting combat and on the range. These too form an interesting study, both in the multiplicity of their design and types, far exceeding the recognized weapons of war.
The craftsmanship shown in the manufacture of these weapons, of which many fine examples are illustrated in this volume, will appeal to both the connoisseur and the collector, besides the fascinating story of how they came into use.

During his long vigil through the hours of darkness the weapons of the aspirant to the order of knighthood were placed at the altar. He was taught that these weapons must never be used save in the defence of honour, virtue and justice. The hilt of his sword was formed in the shape of the emblem of Christianity; and to this day the pressure of his lips on the Cross, as he draws his sword, is commemorated in the Officer’s salute.
It seems probable that it is this tradition of the higher symbolism of weapons that has been largely responsible for the care and attention which, throughout his history, the British soldier has been exhorted to bestow upon his personal arms.
It is no doubt the glamour of ancient chivalry which explains in part the fascination which hand weapons have for so many. This is not, of course, the sole reason. The skill and craftsmanship so often shown in their manufacture, and the fact that they are of a convenient size for handling and display, invite the attention of the collector.
From military arms have descended their counterparts in the chase, in sporting combat and on the range. These too form an attractive study, but in the multiplicity of their type and design they exceed by far the authorized weapons of war; and to deal with them adequately would be beyond the scope of any one book.
This, then, is the story of the weapons which have been used by British fighting men, and of such developments which have influenced their design. It starts, since it must start somewhere, at the Battle of Hastings, in which the seeds of an eventual British Army were sown; and it ends with the supersession of the Short Magazine Lee-Enfield rifle, which served the British Army through half a century and two World Wars.

If one takes the battle of Hastings as a starting-point in a history of weapons, one must logically start with the bill; for this was the principal weapon of the armies of the Saxon kings. It consisted of a heavy axe-type blade, sometimes hooked or curved, set at the end of a long staff or handle. It was wielded with both hands as an axe, and a trained man became remark-7 ably skilled in its use. Few troops could face the steel wall of
FIG. I. SAXON BILLS.
the English household infantry with its line of flashing and cleaving bills. Even the Normans failed to break them by direct shock attack; and to the last they remained formidable as they died in compact groups round their fallen King.
William the Conqueror was too able a soldier to contemplate changing the infantry weapon of his new subjects, and the bill remained as one of the principal arms of the English foot soldier for many centuries after the Conquest. In any riot or tumult in mediaeval times the cry would be heard of, ‘Bills and Bows I Bills and Bows V
FIG. 2. TnE BOAR SPEAR. From ajourtrenth-centuiy MS.
It was not until the introduction of the pike in the fifteenth century that the bill began to lose its pre-eminent place as the infantry shock weapon. Even then it was by no means
0
Ij
FIG. 3. THE SPEAR IN BOAR HUNTING.
From the Cotton MS., ninth century.
replaced, for the Italian Daniel Barbaro, writing in ISS 1, notes the billmen as one of the elements of the’ English infantry. He says that their weapon was ‘a short thick staff, with an iron, like a peasant’s hedging bill…. With this, they strike so violently as to unhorse the cavalry; and it is made short because they like close quarters.’
As late as 1584 there were still a substantial number of billmen in the English forces; for a muster of the troops oil the Scottish border showed that out of about 7400 infantry, 2500 were armed with bills.
From the Bayeux Tapestry it will be seen that both sides at the battle of Hastings were armed with shafted weapons which
FiG. 4. Baas.
Left to right -. Henry IV, Edward IV, Henry VII, Elizabeth I,
Seventeenth century.
appear to be of identical design and something of a cross between lance and javelin; for they are depicted as used by both horse and foot for either throwing or overhand thrusting, and by the mounted knights in the ordinary fashion of a lance.
The spear had been used from very early times in these islands, and it had always formed part of the equipment of the Anglo-Saxon forces. At the time of the Norman invasion it was carried by the English household troops, probably as a secondary weapon, for use either in close combat or to be hurled as a javelin. In defence the latter method was the more likely, in order to break up the ranks of the attackers before they came to close contact with the steel wall and its formidable bills
The early Norman lance was of light construction and very similar to the Saxon spear. It underwent little change during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, though it may have been lengthened and -was probably eventually about thirteen or fourteen feet. The shaft was originally of ash, but in Chaucer’s day it seems to have been more commonly made of cypress wood. In the fourteenth century some protection was given

FIG. 5. SPEAR & LANCE HEADS.

1-3, British, 4-8, Anglo-Saxon, Norman; 9 & io, Fifteenth century;
i i & 12, Sixteenth century.
to the hand by fixing a small round plate (the ‘vam-plate’) to the shaft. In the fifteenth century the shaft of the lance was tapered. Instead of being comparatively narrow and of the same thickness throughout, it was increased in diameter from the point downward and a grip was made for the hand. Towards the end of the century, in the time of Edward IV, the shaft was fluted and the butt ends were shaped to various designs. The fourteenth-century tilting lance was extremely thick and was frequently painted spirally with the distinctive colours of its bearer.

Tags: aspirant, Battle, battle of hastings, bible cabinets, biedermeier furniture hoof foot, biedermeier globe-shaped work table, biedermeier style buffet from 1940s, biedermeier style furniture 1880s, bird cage mechanism table, birdcage tea table, birdcage tripod table missing, birds antique canape pictures, black antique gateleg tables for sale, black art deco arm chair, black background with brass/copper figure antique pictu, black card table wooden legs, black castor wheels for gateleg table, black chippendale table shell tilt, black collectors display cabinet, black french armchair, black french armchair with black and white fabric, black french desks, black lacquer chairs, black lacquer chinese chair antique, black lacquer chinese table carvings, black lacquer shell oriental table, black lacquered mother of pearl sideboard, british army, british soldier, carlo bugatti furniture in turin, carlo zen + art nouveau, carlo zen cabinet, carpentry drawer construction, carved antique japanese screen inlaid lacquer, carved dresser oak scottish, carved german furniture 1930s, carved oak dining tables 1930, carved painted and parcel gilded chaise with swan suppo, carved painted gilded chaise with swan support chair, carved panel chair france holland, carved wood and glass tray, cast pewter epergne 18th century, casters for antique tables, casters regency furniture, catalogue of designs of dishes and plates of 18th centu, catalonia refectory table, cavalry, cedar blanket box antique metal strapping, century furniture chevron, century furniture french empire, century regent furniture, century rotary extending table, ceramic figurine bone china luce, ceramic vases madeby clarice cliff 1930, chair w/spiral legs and lion head, chair with wood duck carver arms, chivalry, Christianity, combat, connoisseur, craftsmanship, Daniel Barbaro, English, equipment, fascination, half a century, hand weapons, Hastings, hilt, honour, hours of darkness, infantry, Knighthood, lee enfield rifle, Lee-Enfield, manufacture, military arms, multiplicity, peasant, personal arms, salute, sword, vigil, virtue, weapon, weapons of war, William

The Germans concentrated their armour from the start in special armoured divisions comprising a balanced force of tanks, artillery, infantry, engineers, and administrative services. No consideration was given to the idea behind the French and British ‘infantry’ tanks and the doctrines associated with them. The tanks, supported by their own artillery and infantry, were to operate as a concentrated strategic force directed against the enemy’s weakest spots and well ahead of the main, slower, infantry army.
This tank army, trained as a team, consisting of ten armoured divisions by May 9, 1940, contained at all levels a wealth of experience. Many of its officers and men were members of tank units which fought on Franco’s side in the Spanish Civil War. Here they gained battle practice: they tested new techniques and the mechanical capabilities of their machines; and they saw the fate that befell tank forces that were put into battle dispersed in ‘penny packets’. Moreover, intensive peacetime exercises in Germany had been supplemented by the bloodless occupations of Austria in 1938 and Czechoslovakia in 1939. In rapid, long-distance thrusts through these countries, the armoured forces taught themselves essential administrative lessons without having actually to engage in combat.
In September 1939, when the fighting began, the administration worked well and the armoured divisions outfought the old-fashioned Polish army in a matter of days, showing that the quality of the highly specialised, mechanised forces was master of the quantity mustered by the larger, traditional conscript armies. It also confirmed what had been long understood: that the air arm, working in close cooperation with tanks, conferred a powerful element of heavy fire-support on forces operating deep in the enemy rear. The aircraft were in fact a substitute for heavy artillery.
Singers without song
Thus on May 9, 1940, the relative overall condition of the opposing armoured forces can be summarised as follows. The French, saddled with a technique that was 20 years out of date, and with machines operated by men who lacked experience of the pace and scope of modern battle conditions, were partnered by the British, whose techniques were far more up-to-date, but who were attempting to practise them with too few machines, and with a number of officers and men who had not yet had time to grasp the significance of their new role. Indeed, it was this lack of experience that most seriously bedevilled the fighting quality of the Allies. Their armoured formations, either through reasons of policy, doctrine, or lack of machines, had not practised together. Nor was there close co-operation with the air arm in the forefront of the land battle. So they were in fact singers without a song.
Fatally linked with their limited use of tanks was the failure of the Allied command to understand and make adequate strategic preparations to defeat the German attacks when they eventually came. There was a belief, sincerely held, despite warnings from men of practical experience, that some terrains were naturally tank-proof and others could be made secure by the erection of concrete and steel fortifications. It was thought that mechanised armies would not be able to pass through the narrow lanes, forests, and valleys of the Ardennes; that the Maginot Line would be impenetrable, and that the extensions of the Maginot Line along the Belgian frontier, certain inundations, and large built-up areas would also be serious obstacles to tank action.
Therefore the Allies made no elaborate plans for tank counterthrusts in the localities they had classified as tank-proof. The best, mobile armoured portions of the French army were not deployed in a manner permitting them to launch an immediate, concentrated counterstroke —even if their doctrine had envisaged such action. As we have seen, no such doctrine existed and as a result it was quite conceivable —even probable—that the light mechanised divisions and the new tank divisions could be flung in piecemeal (and therefore outnumbered) against superior enemy formations.
Their opponents, the Germans, lacked neither doctrine, equipment, training, nor experience. They were masters of a new war-winning technique that brought speed and mobility to the battlefield. By a combination of speed, thrust, and shock action they could bring a completely new momentum to the battle. The impact of the German armoured divisions could not be compared with that of the basically cavalry- and infantry-oriented methods of the Allies: they had in fact — with their range and striking power —introduced a new dimension to warfare.
Types of tank
Yet inevitably the balance of material was in favour of the Allies, who had more tanks than the Germans and many that were technically superior. In their ten armoured divisions the Germans had only 627 of the good Mark III and IV tanks, armed respectively with a 37-mm and a 75-mm gun, and protected by armour not more than 30-mm in thickness. The remaining 2,060 tanks were lightly armoured machines, mostly armed only with a 20-mm gun — although 381 of these were the sound Czech light T-38, equipped with a 37-mm gun. In addition to the 2,690 tanks with the armoured divisions, there were some 800 machines, mostly light ones, in reserve.
Against this array the French fielded about 3,000 machines, of which 500 were in units in the course of formation, plus older reserve machines. Of these 3,000 tanks, 1,292 were with the light mechanised divisions and the new tank divisions; the remainder were split up among the infantry armies. To this total should be added the British. On May 9 they had in France
210 light tanks in the light armoured regiments, and 100 ‘1′ tanks in the lst Army Tank Brigade. A further 174 light tanks and 156 of the new cruisers, belonging to the Armoured Division, were ready to cross the Channel as the battle started. Thus the Allies could oppose 3,000 German tanks with something like 3,600 of their own — if they chose.
On balance, the quality of the machines possessed by the two sides was about equal. The best French tank, the Char B, mounted the excellent 47-mm gun in a fully rotating turret and had a 75-mm gun mounted in the hull. The 20-ton Somua had a 47-mm gun, too, and was fast. The armour of these tanks was from 40 to 60 mm thick, compared with the best German armour of 30 mm. There were 800 of these new machines and even the older ones compared well with the German lighter vehicles. The 384 light British tanks were certain to be severely outclassed in a stand-up fight, because their guns could not penetrate armour, although their high speed and small size might serve them well when engaged on reconnaissance. But the 100 infantry tanks, of which 23 were the new Matilda, were covered by immensely thick armour (up to 70 mm) and quite safe from the fire of the German tank guns. And the 2-pounder gun, mounted in the thinner cruisers of the Armoured Division and also on the Matilda, was a weapon capable of penetrating any of the German machines at battle ranges.
But while the German and British machines (with one exception) were designed with two- or three-man turrets, the French machines had a single man in the turret confronted with the difficult task of commanding the vehicle, loading and firing the gun, and sometimes controlling the tactics of sub-units. The single British exception was the Mark I infantry tank, and this too presented terrible problems of combat efficiency and command.
This technical factor meant that the German and most of the British crews would be able to fight as teams within the all-embracing organisation of the armoured formations to which they belonged—but would also give the Germans an important advantage when their tank formations clashed with the French. This would make up for the fact that the majority of their tanks were vulnerable to the enemy tank guns, while their own guns would not penetrate the armour of a large proportion of the Allied tanks.
Leadership
The importance of personal command and direction is far more apparent to the fighting man in a climate of military opinion that insists that the generals should remain in the fore-front of the battle, in close touch with the leading tanks both visually and by radio. The Germans practised this method more than the Allies. The French kept their command posts further to the rear in accordance with the practice of 1918, and in any case did not possess a control system suited to high-speed combat. This fact, when combined with the separation of the tank-crew commander from the rest of his crew, would be liable to foster a drop in morale among the French tank units (there is evidence to support this —noted by British tank crews working alongside the French later in the campaign). It was clear, they said, that when faced by German tanks the French crews became cautious and were almost paralysed; and this exaggerated respect for the enemy was a result of the drubbing they had received in their first encounters with the German tanks. Even if the balance of morale between the contestants was equal on May 9, a week later the defects in organisation, leadership, and tactics had swung the scales irrevocably in favour of the Germans.
The overriding superiority of the Germans over the Allies was inherent in their intention to make use of well co-ordinated, massed, all-arms formations, launched into battle at the critical points, commanded by inspired men of vision and determination. Men of the stamp of Guderian and Reinhardt led the armoured corps from the van of the battle (with Rommel leading one of the divisions) — and this wealth of talent could not fail to overwhelm lesser men with old-fashioned ideas. For on the Allied side, none of the generals of 1940 had
•    deep knowledge of armoured warfare; with
•    startling lack of foresight, those men who had made a study of the subject had been distributed to positions where their talents lay unused. Martel commanded an infantry division; Broad, Pile, and Lindsay had been sent—some say deliberately—to posts unconnected with armoured warfare; and Hobart had been removed from the Active List, though he was ultimately to be recalled. De Gaulle was only just in the process of assembling a brand new and totally inexperienced tank division.
Let it be admitted that men such as these were not easy to live with. They had learned to be ruthless in the face of long-established tradition, that out-dated rules must be broken whatever the personal and immediate consequences, and that these circumstances applied in all armies. Men insufficiently imbued with spirit failed in the face of military ‘vested interests’; those who stood up to them but were unblessed by fortune were removed—as Hobart was; those who fought, and were lucky, followed their stars to success in war in the forefront of the armoured battle.
In 1940, it was the Germans whose spirit and good fortune had combined — and so they dominated. Most of the French armoured commanders were ineffective, and the grossly outnumbered British tank men could not, except on one outstanding occasion, make a decisive contribution.
In numbers the Allies were superior to the Germans; in quality of equipment they were, on balance, about equal; in strategic and tactical application, they were markedly inferior.
The sheer superiority of German armoured technique ensured the certainty of their victory before the frontiers were crossed.

Tags: 1918, administrative services, air arm, Allied, Ardennes, ARMOURED, armoured divisions, battlefield, british infantry, british tanks, cavalry, combination, command, czechoslovakia, dimension, equipment, fire support, germans, heavy artillery, infantry army, Maginot, mechanical capabilities, mobility, peacetime, polish army, russian tanks, spanish civil war, tank army, tank units, technique, thrusts