Shooting the War

THE BREECH-LOADING RIFLE
From 1857 breech-loading rifles began to appear experimentally in the British Army. These, the first military breechloaders since the Ferguson rifle, were in fact all carbines and were issued for trial to certain cavalry regiments. There were four different patterns: the Terry and the Westley Richards, which were of British design, and the Sharps And the Greene, which were American.
The Terry carbine was made by the firm of Callisher & Terry of Birmingham and 28 Norfolk Street, London. It was a new firm, for it was only established in 1855, and the mechanism invented by the junior partner was patented in 1856. It is of particular interest in that it introduced into the British Army the bolt action, which was later to become almost universal for non-automatic military rifles. The Terry bolt had a coned head which fitted into the correspondingly shaped rear end of the chamber. The bolt was opened by a hinged handle, fitted at its rear end, which was pulled, outwards to withdraw it. When the bolt was closed part of the handle filled up the loading aperture. The bolt was held in position by rear locking lugs (foreshadowing later British practice) which bore against shoulders on the standing breech.
The Terry was of the type known as a ‘capping breechloader’. That is to say, the cartridge used with it contained only the charge of powder and the bullet, the detonating mixture being contained in a separate percussion cap. The Terry cartridge was made of nitrated paper and had a wad of greased felt behind the powder charge and attached to the base. After the discharge of the cartridge this wad remained in the breech and the following round was loaded behind it. After the next shot it was thrust forward in front of the bullet, cleaning and greasing the barrel.
The Terry carbine was a very successful weapon. It was purchased extensively by the Confederacy during the American Civil war and was known as the ‘door bolt’ breech-loader. The famous Confederate cavalry leader General Jeb Stuart had one.
The American Sharps carbine was a much earlier design, having been invented by Christian Sharps in 1848. Its most noteworthy .feature was a ‘falling’ breech block. This opened vertically when actuated by a trigger guard, hinged to move forwards and downwards; but it also fell open when the carbine was held muzzle down. The cartridge case was made of treated linen; and the breech block had a sharp forward edge which, as the block was closed, sliced off the end of this case to expose the powder. The linen was consumed on the explosion of the charge. The first models had separate percussion caps, but the later ones, including those supplied to the British Government, were fitted with the Maynard tape primer, which was rather similar to the strip of caps made for toy pistols, and which  was invented by an American dentist. (It almost seems as if Maynard was more interested in ammunition than he was in teeth, for in 1856 he patented a metallic cartridge with an expanding case.)
The Sharps carbine had an interesting, if somewhat disreputable, history in the years before the outbreak of the American Civil war. The admission of Kansas as a State of the Union was the occasion of a bitter struggle between those who wished to see slave labour introduced and those who were opposed to it. In Massachusetts the New England Emigrant Aid Company was formed to send settlers to Kansas who were opposed to slavery. Many of these were established in the Kansas town of Lawrence, and here armed clashes occurred with slave-state supporters from Missouri. Considerable damage was done in Lawrence both to the homes of the settlers and the public buildings. In revenge the famous, or infamous, John Brown (depending on one’s point of view), in company with a small body of settlers and four of his own sons, seized five of the principal advocates of the slavery movement and killed them. The New England Emigrant Aid Company had supplied the settlers with Sharps carbines-, and a further twenty-five were presented on behalf of the Congregational Church of Plymouth, Massachusetts, by its minister, the Reverend Henry Ward Beecher. From this latter source of supply the Sharps carbines acquired the colloquial name of `Beecher’s Bibles’.
In 1859 John Brown, in command of a motley detachment of eighteen men, including his sons, his brother-in-law and six negroes, seized the Federal Arsenal at Harper’s Ferry, Virginia. Armed with Beecher’s Bibles they then held off attacks by the local militia, until finally forced to surrender by Colonel Robert E. Lee in command of a small force of Marines. John Brown was hanged, but his name has been immortalized in a great Union song which has become one of the most rousing military marches of all time. The far greater man who captured him was to become the brilliant leader in the field of the forces which John Brown had opposed. In the meantime, amongst the relics of this episode is a Sharps ‘Beecher’s Bible’ carbine on which is engraved the name ‘John Brown Jr. .
The Greene, the other American carbine, had an entirely fixed breech and a barrel which rotated and moved forward for loading. The breech and the barrel’were locked’ together by lugs. The principle was not a new one, and the Greene does not seem to have been favourably received; for although 2000 were bought it appears that many were never issued.
The Westley Richards carbine was made by the famous-firm, the early history of which has already been given. As stated in Chapter X111, Westley Richards succeeded his father in 1855, and the name of the firm became Westley Richards & Company. Three years later he patented his capping breech-loader carbine. The mechanism of this, though rather complicated, was the most efficient of the four carbines. The breech was opened and closed by means of a long arm, the forward part of which was hinged to the rear of the barrel. When the breech was closed the rear end of the arm rested in a recess cut along the top of the small of the butt. Raising the arm vertically opened the breech. Attached to the under part of this arm was an elongated plunger, at the forward end of which was a brass breech plug. When closed, the rear end of the plunger butted against an iron shoe, which held it in position against the breech pressure. The plunger had a little free movement ‘fore and aft’ on the arm to ease the action of opening and closing. From its distinctive arm the Westley Richards acquire the nickname of ‘Monkey-Tail’. The cartridge was the same as that used with-the Terry carbine.
The Westley Richards was far the most successful of the four carbines under trial, and in 1861 it was approved as the firearm for the cavalry of the Army. Even when n the Snider was approved for all arms of the Regular Army, it was not entirely displaced; for it was issued to the Yeomanry and was the ‘Standard carbine of the second-line cavalry for many’ years. Abroad the Portuguese Government took a fancy to it and adopted it for use in the army.
Although the cavalry now had a breech-loading rifled firearm, the rest of the Army was equipped with the muzzle-loading Enfield, or (in the case of the Royal Engineers) Lancaster. Breech-loaders were, however, already a commonplace amongst sporting weapons, and it was clear that the muzzle-loader was obsolescent. Several foreign armies were now equipped or partially equipped with breech-loading rifles. Although the American Civil war had been mostly fought with muzzle-loaders, many units in the Union armies had been equipped with Sharps rifles, and several other makes were in use on both sides. On the continent of Europe the Prussian Army had adopted the bolt-action needle gun in 1848, and its superiority over the weapons of opposing armies was evident. in the wars against Denmark in 1864 and Austria in 1866.
In 1864, therefore, a Select Committee was appointed to consider the equipment of the whole Army with breech-loaders, and to study designs for this purpose. The Committee decided that the only practicable method of doing this quickly was to select a mechanism which would permit the conversion of the Army’s large stock of comparatively new muzzle-loading Enfields. Conversion could only be regarded as an interim measure, but it was considered that the selection of the best type of breech-loading rifle for the Army was of less urgency than the provision of some form of breech-loader.
The breech-loading mechanism which was chosen by the Committee was designed by Jacob Snider of New York. The breech was closed by a block which was hinged laterally on the right, and fitted into a recess behind the barrel. To open the breech a thumb piece was pressed which caused the block to swing over to the right. At first it was intended that the Enfield cartridge with its separate cap should be used, and the cap holder and ignition hole formed part of the block.
This was not, however, a very satisfactory answer, for it introduced certain weaknesses. It was decided, therefore, to use a cartridge which incorporated its own detonator. The original Enfield lock and hammer were still retained, but in. place of the nipple the block was pierced obliquely for a striker, the head of which protruded in the part of the block which had been occupied by the nipple. A centre-fire cartridge was adopted, and a claw extractor was fitted to the breech mechanism. This pulled the cartridge case partially out when the breech was opened, and it was then thrown clear by turning the .rifle upside down.
The first cartridge used had a cartridge paper body and a brass base. This was disappointing, and finally the brass-bodied cartridge devised by Colonel Boxer was adopted. This final development took place in 1.867; but in the meantime issue to the troops of the Snider-Enfield, already modified to take a centre-fire cartridge, had started in 1865.
The story of the self-contained cartridge is interesting. The first one seems to have been produced by the inventive Genevan gunsmith of Paris, Jean Samuel Pauly, whose invention of a pellet detonator in 1812 was mentioned in Chapter X. Some time between 1812 and 1815 Pauly produced a centre-fire paper cartridge, affixed to the base of which was a metal rosette containing the detonating mixture. The paper cartridge cannot have been very satisfactory, for shortly afterwards he tried a brass cartridge. The brass, however, was too thick and heavy for the casing t6 expand sufficiently to make a gas-tight seal.
It seems likely that little was required to make a success of Pauly’s invention; and yet, surprisingly, nothing further was apparently attempted for another fifteen years. In 1831 Moser, a foreign engineer, took out a British patent for a muzzle-loader which had a needle-fire cartridge. In 1836 rem Dreyse, a Prussian gunsmith. who had worked under Pauly, produced a breech-loading needle gun; and this was the bolt-action weapon which was adopted by the Prussian Army in 1848. The cartridge was made of combustible paper, and a pellet of fulminate was inserted between the powder charge and the bullet. Fitted to the bolt was a long needle-like striker which penetrated the base of the cartridge and went forward through the powder to pierce the doonator. Though successful in action, the needle gun was a dirty weapon. The needle got badly corroded and the breech became blocked with fouling.
The next major development was the invention by a Frenchman named Houillier, in 1846, of the pin-fire cartridge. The casing was made of thick coiled paper with a base of copper or brass. - Protruding at right angles from the side of the cartridge case, and at the base end where the wall was of metal, Was a pin. This pin was struck by a hammer, which drove it into a detonator inside the cartridge. The following year another Frenchman, Flobert, produced the first rim-fire cartridge. The principle of this has been explained in Chapter XIV, and it differs little from the rim-fire cartridges which are used to-day; chiefly for -22 calibre weapons.
In 185z Lancaster, who, it will be remembered, designed the muzzle-loading rifle which had been adopted for the Royal Engineers, brought out a breech-loading rifle which took a centre-fire cartridge of his own design. Inside the cartridge case, and a short distance from the base, was a perforated metal disc. Between this disc and the base was the detonating mixture: base, disc and detonator forming a sandwich. When the striker hit the base, it was indented, compressing the detonator and causing an explosion. The flash from the detonator passed through the perforations of the disc to the powder charge. The success of the Lancaster cartridge led to the adoption of a centre-fire cartridge for the Snider,
Some years previously, probably about 1839, another Frenchman, Pottet, invented a tapered expanding cartridge made of rolled paper with a metal base. In the centre of the base there was an aperture, and on the inner side of this was fixed a chamber containing a detonator, and having a small hole communicating with the powder charge. In 1857 Pottet patented his invention, but there was apparently no machinery available to manufacture it and hand manufacture would have been too expensive.
Yet another Frenchman, F. E. Schneider of Paris, patented an improved version of the Pottet cartridge, and this was introduced into England by the gunmaking firm of Witton and Daw (the successors to George H. Daw). This was the centre-fire cartridge which was selected for the Snider-Enfield. As has already-been said, it was not a complete success. The problem was then tackled by Colonel Boxer, Superintendent of the Royal Laboratory at Woolwich, with the result that he produced his very successful modification of 1867-
The Boxer cartridge hadacase made of thin sheet brass, coiled and covered with paper, and mounted on a separate base which was a disc, first of brass and later of iron. The hollow rivet which secured the cylinder to the base was the cap chamber. Oddly enough the Boxer principle was subsequently adopted by the United States of America, whilst the present bottlenecked type of cartridge now used in the British Army originated in the 187o design of Colonel Hiram Berdan of the United States Ordnance. Department.
The immediate requirements of the Army having been provided for, consideration was now given to the type of breech-loading rifle which should replace the Snider-Enfield. Eventually,.in 1871, the Martini-Henry was selected. This rifle combined the falling breech mechanism invented by an Austrian, von Martini, and the rifled barrel with seven grooves which had been designed by an Edinburgh gunsmith named Alexander Henry.
The Martini breech mechanism consisted of a block which was hinged at its rear end, and in which was a coiled spring to actuate the striker. Behind the trigger guard was a lever, which, when it was pulled down, lowered the front end of the block to uncover the breech, extracted and ejected the cartridge case, and cocked the striker. The loaded cartridge was then inserted by hand into the chamber. In its simplicity and efficiency the Martini action is one of the best that has ever been designed, and it is still the most popular for small-bore competition shooting. From a military point of view, however, it suffered from two very serious defects. Firstly, sand was liable to jam the mechanism, and this gave great trouble in the Egyptian campaign of 1882. Secondly, it was a single-shot weapon, and it was therefore doomed once the demand for magazine rifles arose.
Another defect in the Martini-Henry was Henry’s barrel. The grooves of the rifling were deep and square cut, with the result that fouling lodged in them very readily. The bore was smaller than that of the Snider-Enfield, being only -450 instead of -577.- In spite of this the Snider-Enfield was the pleasanter weapon to fire, for the Martini-Henry had a vicious kick of a recoil.
After some experimental models had been tested in 1972, the Martini-Henry Mark I was issued to the troops in 1874. The Mark II of 1876 and the Mark III of 1879 embodied minor modifications. In 1886 a Committee, convened as a result of the troubles experienced in the Egyptian campaign, recommended certain. improvements in the rifle, including a bore of ‘402- Some experimental models were made, known as the Enfield Martini; but as magazine rifles were already under investigation nothing came of them, and they were converted to Martini-Henrys of the normal pattern and designated Mark IV.
A great student of the science of rifling, William Ellis Metford, was born in Taunton in 1824. He became a civil engineer, and at an early age worked under the famous Isambard Kingdom Brunel on the construction of the Great Western Railway. Later he went to India as a railway engineer, but returned to England when his never very robust health broke down.
Metford had been interested in shooting both in practice and theory from his youth, and after he had been forced to give up his Indian career he had more time to devote to this hobby. From notes which he has left it is apparent that he was carrying out experimental work on rifles at least as early as i85o; and in 1852 he was firing rifles at i2oo yards’ range in pursuance of his experiments. By 1854 he was satisfied that, contrary to the general belief, the expansion of a bullet into the rifling -occurred immediately after the explosion of the charge and before it started to move forward. He also discovered that the explosion caused a rifle barrel to bend, so that when the bullet left the muzzle the barrel was pointing in a slightly different direction to the original point of aim.
Metford evolved a most ingenious method of testing his theories. He fired bullets into a long box filled with sawdust, and was thus able to recover them in the condition in which they had left the barrel of the rifle. From subsequent examination it was possible to tell whether there had been any leakage of explosion gases past a bullet, and the manner in which it had taken the rifling. From such experiments Met-ford found that the common practice of constructing very deep grooving in a rifled barrel was unnecessary, and that a longitudinal bullet with a good bearing surface would not strip, or ride over, the lands even when the grooves were very shallow. He also found that the generally held theory that a bullet must be made of pure .lead to be soft enough to be expanded by the explosion into the grooves was incorrect; and that, on the contrary, a much harder bullet of lead and an alloy would do.
Metford next constructed a rifle and bullets in accordance with his ideas. The grooves were only a few thousands of an inch deep, and the lead and alloy bullet had a shallow hollow ire the base and was protected from friction by a thin paper wrapping. A great friend of Metford’s, Colonel Halford, had his own private range at Wistow in Leicestershire. Here experiments were carried out with the new rifle. They were sufficiently successful for Metford to have a special rifle made in 1865 for match shooting. This had seven grooves of a depth of four-thousandths of an inch. Armed with this weapon, a muzzle-loader, Halford, entered the-competition held by the Cambridge University Long Range Club, which included practices at i 000 and i i oo yards. To the astonishment of the many critics-of the design, Halford won the cup presented for the best score on the two days’ shoot.
Metford’s ideas had come to stay, and they were soon being copied by all gunsmiths. For military rifles, unfortunately, Henry’s barrel had been adopted before the implications of Metford’s success had been really appreciated. In due course his rifling replaced Henry’s in the weapon of the British soldier, but before this happened there was a new development in bullet design. The bore of the Martini-Henry rifle, even though considerably smaller than that of the Snider-Enfield, was still very large. A reduction in the size of the bore would allow a smaller cartridge, and this in turn would result in the soldier being able to carry a greater quantity of ammunition in his personal equipment: an important consideration in view of the increased rate of fire which would be possible with the advent of the magazine rifle. With the existing muzzle velocity of the bullet, however, its size, which was dictated by the military requirement for stopping power, could not be reduced any further. If the velocity could be increased the same stopping.power could be obtained with a smaller bullet, but the lead bullets then used were too soft to be propelled at a faster rate down the barrel. The difficulty was solved by a Swiss, Colonel Rubin, who found that if the lead bullet was encased in a covering of a harder metal it would stand up to much greater velocities.
As a result of Colonel Rubin’s discovery the calibre of British Army rifles was reduced to -303 inch in 1888, and this is still the standard for all full-bore bolt-action rifles. The increased velocity was at first obtained by using a charge of compressed black powder. In the meantime a Committee was established under the presidency of Frederick Abel, an expert in the manufacture of explosives, to devise a smokeless propellent. A solution was found in a preparation based on the discoveries of the great Swiss engineer, Alfred Nobel. It was hardened into a long cord and given the name ‘cordite’. From 1892 it was used in all Service small arms ammunition. Cordite increased the velocity of the bullet from the i 800 feet per second of the compressed black powder charge, to 2000 feet per second. This was further increased to 2440 feet per second in 1911 when a still lighter pointed bullet was adopted.
The new rifle which was introduced into the British Army in 1888 was the Lee-Metford. It had Metford’s design of rifled barrel with the ‘303-inch calibre, and a bolt-action breech and magazine, both invented by a Scottish watchmaker named James Paris Lee. Lee’s bolt is a development of the breech mechanism which had’ first appeared in the Prussian needle gun of 1848 and subsequently in the French Chassepot of 18 66. The Lee action is still in use in the British Army, and is only now, some seventy years after its first introduction, being replaced by a semi-automatic mechanism.
The function of the bolt, briefly, is to push the cartridge into the breech, close the breech, fire the cartridge, and extract and eject the empty case. The cartridge is fired by a pin which is held back by a spring inside the bolt, and which projects through a hole in the bolt-head when the pressure of the trigger releases the spring. The Lee bolt was strongly criticized by leading British gunsmiths because it is held in position when closed by lugs at the rear of the bolt. Whereas, theoretically, in order that the minimum amount of metal should be under stress at the time of firing, front locking lugs should be used, as in the German Mauser and the. American Garand. However, the Lee rear locking lugs permit the use of a separate bolt-head, which facilitates cleaning and adjustment. Moreover, the Lee action is the fastest bolt-action ever to have been devised, and its retention in the Army after the Boer war and the two World Wars is a testament to its efficiency in action.
The Lee magazine is a separate box which is inserted under the breech mechanism and held in place by a spring clip. Inside is a platform which is pushed upwards from below by a spring in the base of the box. The cartridges are inserted on top of the platform and press it downwards, so compressing the spring. As one cartridge ‘is pushed forward by the bolt from the magazine, so the spring pushes another one upwards into place. The first magazine held eight rounds of the black powder ammunition. This was increased to ten rounds when the cordite ammunition was introduced.
From 18 go a number of the Martini action rifles were given the Metford barrel instead of the Henry. These conversions were known as Martini-Metfords. Between 1891 and 1892 a large number of the Martini-Henry Cavalry carbines and. Artillery carbines were similarly converted.
In x895 the Metford barrel was modified at Enfield by reducing the number of grooves in the rifling from seven to five. The new rifle was called the Lee-Enfield. Further rifle and carbine conversions from the Martini-Henrys received this barrel and became Martin i-En fields.
No bolt-action carbines were made until 1896, when a magazine Lee-Enfield Cavalry carbine was produced. All Artillery carbines, however, continued to have the single-shot Martini action. In addition, Colonial troops at the start of the Boer war were armed with the Martini-Enfield, and the Indian Army was equipped with it until i goS.
At the time the retention of single-shot weapons did not appear as such a disadvantage  as it would now; for the magazine was regarded as a reserve, and the rifle was fitted with a cut-out which slid across the magazine so that it could be cut off from the chamber. This was the normal position for firing, the rifle being reloaded by hand with a single round after each . shot. It was probably considered that ammunition supply in the field would present difficulties if the high rate of fire, which the magazine made possible, were used too freely. The comparative effectiveness of the new magazine rifles was demonstrated, however, at the battle of Omdurman. The British troops opened fire on -the charging dervishes at a range of 2000 yards and stopped them Soo yards from their position. The Egyptian and Sudanese troops, who had Martini-Henrys, opened fire at moo yards and stopped them 300 yards away.
The limited use of the magazine was found to be a handicap in the. Boer war. Once the reserve of rapid fire had been used there was no means of re-charging the magazines quickly. Lee had, indeed, invented a charger in 1892 by means of which five rounds could be loaded simultaneously. This was not considered necessary at the time but was eventually adopted as a result of the lessons of the Boer war.
The Boer war showed that fire power by mounted troops was at least as important as shock action, and the Martini carbine, with which most of the cavalry were armed, was a very ineffective weapon compared with the magazine Lee-Enfield of the mounted infantry. After the war it was therefore decided that carbines should be abolished and that there should be one pattern of rifle for the whole Army. In order to make it suitable for use by mounted troops the Lee-Enfield was reduced in length and entitled the Short Magazine Lee-Enfield (known to generations of soldiers as the S.M.L.E.). In compensation the bayonet was slightly lengthened.

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The first new smooth-bore percussion musket was the so-called Pattern 1838 chippendale cutlery urns. Only comparatively few were made and its issue was confined to the Regiments of Foot Guards making cabriole legs with padded feet. As might be expected, in general form and appearance it was very similar to the earlier Pattern i 80 musket antique english column candlesticks. Together with the Brunswick rifle and the Victoria carbine for the cavalry, it formed a series for which Mr paw feet dining rooms table. Lovell was responsible; though whether he had an actual hand in design is not clear myott son & co. hanley. The 33-inch barrel was the shortest that had yet been issued to heavy infantry 19th century cutlery pennsylvania dutch. Serjeants of the Foot Guards were not issued with this musket, but with a 33-inch barrel version of its contemporary, the Brunswick rifle antique fluted legs.
Although the Brunswick rifle does not properly belong to a chapter on smooth-bore firearms, this may be an appropriate place to deal with it, since its issue was so closely allied with the other weapons for which Mr antique extending round dining table. Lovell was responsible art deco glass. It was intended to be the percussion replacement for the Baker rifle, and was officially designated ‘Lovell’s Improved Brunswick Pattern’ were exports scenes common in the chenghua period.
The new rifle was designed by Captain Berners, an officer in a Jaeger regiment of the Brunswick Army, and was adopted by the Board of Ordnance after trials at Woolwich in 1836 betty joel miroir antique. The rifling of the Brunswick was peculiar most valuable antique silverware. There were only two grooves, and they made one complete turn, in the length of the barrel antique oak dropleaf gateleg table. This was not a new idea by any means, for at the time of its adoption for the Army it was already the most popular form of rifling for sporting weapons can antique dressers pair with modern furniture. A special bullet was used with this two-groove rifling: spherical in shape, but having a•raised belt round the middle antique european sideboard, etagere, cabinet,. The belt fitted into the grooves, which were fairly deep, and the bullet of the sporting weapons fitted the bore sufficiently easily to be rammed home without difficulty 19th century side tables. In practice the results ob1 tained with this type of rifle were not as good as they would seem to be in theory what is antique library table worth. There was a good deal of friction in the barrel through the bullet magnificent table 18 century marble. not being able to move freely, there was a heavy recoil, and the shape of the bullet did not lend itself to accurate flight contemporary british cabinetry best examples.
The calibre of the Brunswick rifle was ‘704 and the barrel length (except as mentioned above) was thirty inches duncan phyfe buffet. It was sighted to 300 yards, was fitted with a cross-handled sword bayonet and measured three feet ten inches overall french restoration table. It was a thoroughly bad weapon; perhaps the worst ever issued to British troops antique dining fold over tables with leaves. One of the troubles seems to have been that the ball was made too tight-fitting, and another that there was insufficient power behind the bullet to keep it spinning sufficiently rapidly for straight flight deco airplane stand.
The unfortunate Rifle regiments were inflicted with the Brunswick up till the Crimean war officers campaign bed. Their opinion of it is reflected in a report submitted in 18 52 by a Select Committee on Small Arms:
`At all distances double scroll legs desk art deco. above four hundred yards the shooting was so wild as to be unrecorded rose emblem. The Brunswick rifle has shown itself to be much inferior in point of range to every other arm hitherto noticed d-form dining table. The loading of this rifle is so difficult that it is a wonder how the Rifle regiments have continued to use it so long—the force required to ram down the ball being so great as to render any man’s hand unsteady for accurate shooting empire sofas. Comment is unnecessary pierced silver hot plate made in italy.’
Lovell’s other firearm was the ‘Victoria’ carbine drop leaf carved leg table. Like the heavy cavalry carbine of 1796, it had a 26-inch barrel of musket bore chinese mother of pearl chair rosewood antique. It was issued, apparently, to the Household Cavalry only vintage chinese black lacquer card table.
At the same time as the Lovell weapons were appearing the conversion of all three types of the new flintlock musket was taken in hand george 11 antique lacquered furniture. The percussion version was known as Pattern 1839, and except for the altered lock was identical with its flintlock predecessor early nineteenth century german desk.
It is probable that there were sufficient of the flintlock muskets to equip the whole Army with converted arms seek jingdezhen plum blossom porcelain vases. However, in 1841 there was a disastrous fire in the Tower of London which destroyed many thousands of firearms awaiting conversion 1940’s mahogany dining chairs. As a result a new series of arms had to be manufactured antigue table cloths 1920. The musket was called Pattern 1842 rectangular dropleaf tables. It was similar to, and was produced in the same three barrel lengths as, Pattern 1839 federal style 18th century dresser. The only major difference was that the bayonet of the short musket was no longer saw-backed julius mihalik.
There were two percussion carbines for the cavalry: musket bore for the heavy cavalry and carbine bore for the light cavalry rectangular oak gateleg table. The carbine for the heavy cavalry retained the 26-inch barrel silver candlesticks flower. That for the light cavalry had a slightly longer barrel than the last flintlock weapon of twenty-one inches how to value lowboy queen anne.
Mr stone china george jones stoke on trent. Scurfield hag made some interesting comments on the final changeover from flint to percussion arms jockey cap caddy spoons. He says: `A tradition persists that some regiments going from India to the Crimean War were still armed with flintlocks, but I have never found any confirmation, and to me it seems rather improbable davenport cabinet desk. All the same, I do not know when the Regular Army handed in its last flintlocks, and can only suggest that it was between x 84 and i850—perhaps not long before 1851, the year of the Great Exhibition antique neoclassic furniture. The Militia went straight from the India Pattern flintlock to the Enfield rifle in the very late 18 -So’s or early 186o’s antique white chamber pot.
`In 1846 the 27th Foot (Inniskilling Fusiliers) in South Africa were still armed with a mixture of flint and percussion muskets, but two battalions of the gxst were completely equipped with percussion; it would be interesting to know whether they were Pattern 1839 or Pattern 1,842—or some of each antique tea cabinet.’
In the years following the Napoleonic wars most of the cavalry’s pistols had been withdrawn walnut baluster leg table. Lancers -carried them in place of carbines, which got in the way of the lance; and in other regiments they were retained by serjeant-majors and trumpeters, who also did not carry carbines furniture makers of the 16th century. To meet this limited need a percussion pistol was made with a musket bore and a 9-inch barrel antiques pottery made in coimbra.
The fulminating compound which was used in these first military percussion arms was made up of three parts of chlorate of potash, two parts of fulminate of mercury and single gate leg tables.one part of powdered glass antique italian rococo bedroom set marble and wood.

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The Reverend Alexander John Forsyth, M renniance ebony cupboard italian antique.A brother furnitures (cupboard)., minister of the parish of Belhelvie in Aberdeenshire, was an enthusiastic shot 1940s art deco rocket sofa. Ile was fortunate, therefore, in that near the manse where he was -born, and where in due course he had succeeded his father as minister, was a loch which was a favourite resort of wild geese, duck and other water fowl loiu xiv antique laquer dresser. In addition to the hours which he spent on the shores of the loch with his long I 2-bore flintlock, the Reverend Alexander had ‘another hobby sheraton 18th century dresser. In the grounds of the manse was a little garden house which he had converted into a workshop or laboratory robert jupe table. His neoclassic furniture. parishioners knew it as the ‘Minister’s Smiddy’, and in it he pursued the taste for mechanics and chemistry which he had acquired at antique mahogany drum tables library tables writing tables. King’s College, Aberdeen antique tilt top table inlay design.
It was natural that one hobby should help the other antique music lyre chair. After getting into position for a perfect shot on the loch, Forsyth had frequently been exasperated by the fact that geese, warned by the flash of the flintlock, had time to take flight before the gun actually fired pel tubular steel side chairs. This tendency of a flintlock to ‘hang fire’ was, of course, well known, and, as shown in the last chapter, it was taken account of in military musketry instruc, tion italian wood armchairs. It only became of importance, however, in the case of a fleeting target, or, as in the case of the Reverend Alexander’s geese, a very alert one small round breakfast table. Forsyth first tried to get over the difficulty by designing a sighted hood, which fitted over the flintlock and would, he hoped, conceal the flash from the geese bugatti furniture range. The results, however, were not entirely satisfactory chinese ebony and marble table.
He next turned his attention to the possibility of obtaining an instantaneous explosion of the powder art nouveau furniture shop france. It may have been the researches of a Frenchman named Berthollet which finally led Forsyth to ‘detonation’ as the only answer to the problem; that is, in exploding a substance by hitting it with a hammer antique napoleon furtiure.
That certain substances, such as the fulminates of silver and mercury, would detonate when struck, and had great explosive power, had been known to scientists for many years gateleg table oak drop leaf rectangular. Samuel Pepys, for instance, records in his diary of the i ith November 1663:
`At antique holophane lighting.noon to the Coffee-House, where, with Dr drop front desks. Allen, some good discourse about physick and chymistry black alvar aalto stool 60 finmar. And among other things I telling him what Dribble, the German doctor, do offer of an instrument to sink ships; he tells me that which is more strange, that something made of go!d,, which they call in chymistry Aurum Fulminans, a grain, I think he said, of it put into a silver spoon and fired, will give a blow like a musquett, and strike a hole through the silver spoon downwards, without the least force upward; and this he can make a cheaper experiment of, he says, with iron prepared decoration metal bureau table desing.’
The difficulty about the fulminates was their great power antique dresser with turned leg. It was quite impractical to use them as the propellent for a bullet as they would have blown the gun up hunting chest french 18th century. Berthollet in 1788 tried to get over the problem by mixing potassium chlorate (which had lately been found to have the same property of detonation) with other components to make a gunpowder which would give a more powerful, and, at the same time, more rapid explosion than could be obtained with saltpetre as the principal ingredient carved frame desk chair. However, Berthollet’s new powder proved far too dangerous either to make in large quantities or to use with firearms spanish pottery 16th century. Further attempts by Berthollet to find a solution were prevented by -the French Revolution tableware expensive.
Forsyth’s first idea was to use a powder containing potassium chlorate or fulminate of mercury as a primer in an ordinary flintlock cheverton reducing machine. He certainly got an instantaneous flash in the priming pan, but it was so instantaneous and so little heat was, generated that the charge in the gun was not ignited at all antique fashion engravings. He then tried adding ordinary powder to the mixture in the pan, but the rapid flash scattered the gunpowder without giving it time to ignite antique cigar chair with wood arms.
After these failures Forsyth came to the conclusion that he must try a change in the method of ignition imperial,gate leg. His trials had already shown that the fulminates exploded far more violently when struck than when ignited by fire rare antqiue marbels. Experiments on these lines at last met with success furniture designersgerman. Forsyth succeeded in modifying one of his flintlock fowling-pieces to percussion ignition and used it on his loch during the winter of 1805-06 how to detect silver cutlery. The satisfactory rise in the geese casualty rate proved to the Reverend Alexander that an answer to the problem had indeed been found art deco kneeling dancer lamp.
It was soon apparent to dither Forsyth or his friends that there was a far wider scope for the new lock than in the destruction of the Belhelvie geese; and early in i 80 he journeyed to London antique mahogany card table, imperial.
Forsyth was armed with letters of introduction to some of the distinguished sportsmen in London telescopic pie crust table. It is likely that he antique japanese ko imari. also had in mind the possible use of his lock for antique light yellow dresser. military arms valueof1800’slibrarytable. In any case, one of these sportsmen showed the converted flintlock fowling-piece to Sir Joseph Banks who in turn showed it to Lord Moira, at that time Master-General of the Ordnance 1930 walnut art deco style furniture. Moira was much impressed with the invention and, sending for Forsyth, urged him to carry out further experiments in the Tower of London louis 16th style furniture. Forsyth eventually agreed on the condition that his expenses were- paid and that he should be provided with an ordained assistant to take charge of his parish during his absence drop leaf table stable base. This was arranged, Moira authorizing an initial payment-of ico and obtaining leave of absence for the minister of Belhelvie from the Aberdeen Presbytery medieval “reading slope”.
The task before Forsyth was somewhat different to the problem which he had originally set out to solve 19th century louis xv mahogany french chest of draws floral inlaid wood with marble top and glass cabinet with cabriole legs. In the case of the Belhelvie geese the speed of discharge was the important factor, and an occasional misfire was of no great matter canadian desk with drawers. For the military arm the certainty of ignition was of far greatef importance than its speed windows 1930. The flintlock misfired often, and its open mechanism was particularly susceptible to damp 18th century antique sofa collectors. The percussion arm with its enclosed lock and powerful priming action seemed to offer some certainty of ignition, and it was this aspect which must have appealed especially to Moira 19th century chinese chamber pots.
There were many difficulties art deco game tables. The original fowling-piece lock was unsuitable, and when a better enclosed lock was designed the original detonating mixture proved too powerful small antique french writing cabinet. Forsyth had originally preferred a powder with fulminate of mercury as the main ingredient, since it was cleaner than other detonating mixtures italian glass fronted display cabinets. It was found, however, that with accurately machined locks detonating mercury always burst or distorted the part which contained it antique silver candelabra screw. Since other mixtures were too foul Forsyth had to find something else round gateleg table. Moreover, several chemists having already been damaged by accidental explosions of fulminating compounds, Forsyth found it impossible to find any of them who would do more than provide him with the ingredients value of empire style china closet 1910. He therefore had to carry out all experiments himself antique jugend style cupboard.
Eventually he was successful gate leg drop leaf table. He produced a detonating powder which answered all requirements, and a lock the principle of which was approved by Lord Moira in April 1807- At this juncture, however, there was a sudden change of Ministry, which swept Moira from office and reinstalled Lord Chatham as Master-General of the Ordnance antique silver serving platter with peacock emblem on back. Chatham’s reaction to Forsyth’s experiments was to direct their author to render an account of his expenditure, return all Government property in his possession, and remove himself and his `rubbish’ from the Tower chippendale antique tables. In addition the new M wheat antique dresser.G porcelain relief herons and swans.O sphinks console tables. refused to allow the payment of the assistant at Belhelvie as part of Forsyth’s expenditure,
Forsyth left the service of the Government, therefore, not only without reward for his invention, but out of’ antique czechoslovakia porcelain vase.pocket on his expenses extending console table. If the stupid and incompetent Chatham thought little of the percussion lock, there were others who grasped its potentialities scandinavian octagon dining table. Napoleon conveyed to Forsyth the enormous offer of Z2o,000 for the use of his lock mannerist carved table. Forsyth’s outright rejection of this italian rococo style antique three arch gilded mirror.offer may possibly have saved his country the loss of the war neo-rococco cabinet.
It would not have been surprising if the Reverend Alexander had now returned to his Scottish parish blacks, meissen, porcelain. He was, however, a determined and very courageous man, and, furthermore, he had an implicit faith spanish antique table. in his percussion lock french display cabinet south eastern area. He decided therefore that if the Government would have nothing to do with his invention he would put it on the market as a private venture art deco vases. His first step was to take out a patent, and to help him to draw up the specifications he consulted the famous engineer, James Watt value clawfoot drop leaf table. The resulting document was quite a masterpiece, since the very general terms in which it was phrased covered the manufacture of all gun-locks on the percussion principle antique bedside tables marble tops. It read as follows:
`First, as to the chemical plan and principles thereof, instead of permitting the touch-hole or vent of the pieces of artillery, fire-arms, mines, chambers, cavities or places to communicate with the open air, and instead of giving fire to the charge by a lighted match, or by flint and steel; or by any other matter in a state of actual combustion applied to a priming in an open pan, I do close the touch-hole or vent by means of a plug or sliding piece, or other fit piece of metal or suitable material or materials, so as to exclude the open air, and to prevent any sensible escape of the blast or explosive gas or vapour outwards, or from the priming or charge, and as much as possible to force the said priming to go in the direction of the charge, and to set fire to the same, and not to be wasted in the open air; and as a priming I do make use of some or one of those chemical compounds which are so easily inflammable as to be capable of taking fire and exploding without any actual fire being applied thereto, and merely by a blow, or by any sudden or strong pressure or friction given or applied thereto without extraordinary violence; that hat is to say, for example, the salt formed of dephlogistigated marine acid and potash (or potasse), which salt is otherwise called oxymuriate of potash; or I do make use of such of the fulminating metallic compounds as may be used with safety: for example, fulminating mercury, or of common gunpowder mixed in due quantity with any of the before-mentioned compounds; and these compounds, or mixtures of compounds, I find to be much better for priming than gunpowder used alone, which cannot be made to explode without some sparks or actual fire applied thereto, or else without such a degree of extraordinary and violent percussion as cannot conveniently be made use of in gunnery, or with any of the firearms or artillery that are in most general use arabesque vertical plate racks. But it is to be observed that I do not lay claim to the invention of any of the said compounds or matters to be used for priming, my invention in regard thereto being confined to the use and application thereof to the purposes of artillery and firearms as aforesaid; and the manner of priming and exploding which I use is to introduce into the touch-hole or vent, or into a small and strong chamber or place between the said touch-hole and vent, and the plug or sliding piece, or other piece by which the communication with the external air is cut off, a small portion of some or one of the chemical compounds herein-before mentioned (for example, as for priming to a musket, about the eighth part of a grain), and when the required discharge is to be made I do cause the said chemical compound or priming to take fire and explode by giving a stroke or sudden and strong pressure to the same, communicated by and through the said plug or sliding piece; or other piece before mentioned or described, in consequence of which the fire of the priming is immediately communicated to the contents or charge placed within the said piece of artillery, fire-arm, mine, chamber, cavity, or place, and the discharge accordingly follows czechoslovakia old furniture.’
The patent was granted in July 1807, and in the following year Forsyth opened a gun shop at No antique engraved drawings. io Piccadilly under the title of ‘Forsyth & Company, Patent Gun Makers’ the period preceding art deco. The name of the assistant whom he engaged is probably now better known than that of his master, for it was none other than James Purdey, formerly with Joseph Manton and later founder of the famous firm of James Purdey & Sons dutch rococo walnut cupboard. The wares of the new company were advertised as follows:
`The Forsyth patent gunlock is entirely different from the common gunlock green wedgewood plant pots. It produces inflammation by means of percussion and supersedes the use of flints boulle tabel. Its principle advantages are the following: The rapid and complete inflammation of the whole charge of gunpowder in the chamber of the barrel india brass table tray. The prevention of the loss of force through the touchhole antique brass leg knee mount french. Perfect security against rain or damp in the priming antique table collectors. No flash from the pan and less risk of accidental discharge of the piece than when the common lock is used antique card table collectors. The charge of gunpowder to be from one third to one fourth less than when the flintlock is used meubles art antique american.
The lock which was fitted to the guns sold at io Piccadilly was of the same design as that perfected by Forsyth during his time at the Tower names of art deco furniture makers. It -was) however, of finished and decorative workmanship, as compared with the rough models which he made for military trials queen anne antique bureau photo. At approximately the same place where the flash-pan is on a flintlock gun, a steel plug was screwed into the side of the barrel 18th century drum tables. The plug was drilled through the centre with an-inch hole which gave access into the breech and to the powder charge sideboard plinth. Mounted on, and pivoting on, the plug was the container which held the priming charge: This container was, on account of its shape, described as the `scent-bottle’ type meissen candlesticks. It was divided horizontally into two halves, the lower of which was filled with detonating powder austere style. On the upper surface of the plug was a small ‘flash-pan about * inch wide and -’16 inch deep, and from the bottom of this a very narrow vent of about pin-size diameter led to the central hole of the plug antique jugend style cupboard. (The outer end of this central hole was closed by the screw- which held the container in position greek neoclassical porcelain.) When the container was turned through i8o degrees a small amount of the detonating powder dropped into the flash-pan francaise antique. Reversing the container to its original position brought a striker into line with the flash-pan antique mahogany dolphin table. When the trigger was pulled a hammer was released which hit the striker and detonated the priming powder american made old french style chairs. The flash-pan being enclosed the flame was forced down the vent with great force, causing an instantaneous discharge of the gun ruhlmann chair.
The lower half, or magazine, of the container held enough priming powder for about twenty shots antique rectangle drop leaf table cabinet. In addition, part of the equipment of the gun was an ivory flask in which was carried spare powder to refill the magazine biedermeier canape.
The new lock was an immediate success, and between i8o8 when Forsyth opened his business until 1821 when his patent expired nearly 4000 locks were made dutch 18th century walnut chest on chest. Some of these were attached to newly manufactured guns and pistols, and others were sold separately for fitting to converted flintlocks social origins of art deco. Use of percussion sporting arms became widespread britannia silver candlesticks. A well-known and very keen sportsman, Mr paul follot chair. H 1900th century furniture. Baring, M 1840s wooden chest.P coalbrookdale neptune dish., wrote to Forsyth in’ 1814 saying, ‘I think I may now congratulate you on having made your Patent lock perfect and I venture to predict that in a few years nothing else will be used by sportsmen in this country kotahya pottery. I have shot with your guns for the last four years entirely, and under their different stages of improvement, and few persons can be better qualified than myself to form a practical opinion of them antique chinese display cabinets black oak. I shoot every day it is possible to go out from the beginning of the season to the end and I am often in the predicament of firing my gun as often as my barrels will bear to be fired in one day 1940’s art deco black and gray lacquer bedroom set prices.’
Nevertheless the `scent-bottle’ lock had one serious weakness scroll planter table y chair. The loose detonating powder in the magazine sometimes exploded owing to the flame from the flash-pan leaking through to it “goldscheider mark”. A later Forsyth design, incorporating a magazine which slid forward on rollers over the flash-pan, was open to the same objection console tables tubular uk.
Some of the other gunmakers had ideas as to how the difficulty might be surmounted, but Forsyth’s porcelaine antique motif ming. all-embracing patent protected him from any competition in Great Britain antique bullock’s 8′ sofa. A Genevan gunsmith of Paris, Pauly, however, arrived at the same solution in 18 12 which had already occurred to one or two dinning table carved like an animal. British gunsmiths austrian mirrored tables. This, in short, was to put the detonating mixture in a pellet, thus avoiding the danger of the loose powder parquetry specimen top. Pauly’s pellet was much the same as the present-day cap used for toy pistols walnut beaconsfield wardrobe. It consisted of a mixture-of potassium chlorate with sulphur and charcoal, to which was added a small amount of gum arabic antique pembroke table, inlay design. This was moulded into a hard pill and enclosed between two paper discs steele art deco chair wood arm rests.
In 18 16 Joseph Manton, younger brother of John Manton who had been foreman to Twigg, took a risk and patented a percussion pellet lock antique octagonal table small. This embodied a hammer with a hollow head in which the pellet was first inserted, and then the striker “chinese screen” and “mother of pearl”. The striker was drilled down its centre with a very narrow hole, and had a cavity cut in its outer surface antique trestle refectory table. When the trigger was pulled the forward movement of the hammer brought the striker into contact with a nipple, which fitted into the cavity and had a vent communicating with the powder charge cassone furniture -chris -vincent -antonio -gabriele. The force with which the hammer hit the nipple drove the striker back against the pellet, and the resulting flame travelled down the central hole in the striker and thence via the vent in the nipple to the powder japanned antique chest-how to strip lacquer. Though an ingenious idea, Manton’s lock was clearly an infringement of Forsyth’s patent, and was hardly an improvement on it since the striker had to be removed after each shot lambeth ingredients.
In 1818 Joseph Manton tried-again antique ceramic dish in silver stand. This time, instead of using a pellet he had designed a `tube-lock’, which he thought to be outside the scope of the Forsyth specification walnut side tables and lowboys. In this lock one end of a copper tube filled with fulminate of mercury was inserted :into the vent communicating with the charge 18th century amboyna card table. There it was held by a spring cover, and was struck by the hammer through a hole in the cover art deco furniture in united state. This was a very successful design, for it was simple and gave a certain discharge commedia del arte wallendorf. However, Forsyth was successful in a lawsuit, and Manton was unable to proceed with his lock deco porcelain spanish dancers female.
This lawsuit came almost at the end of Forsyth’s active interest in his company antique 17th century drop leaf tables. The patent had only two years to run, and in 1819 the Reverend Alexander returned to his parish, where he was to continue to officiate until his death in 1843, In the same year the company moved to 8 Leicester Street, Leicester Square, and finally ceased operations in 1826 george bullock collectors cabinet.
Forsyth received little public recognition during his life-time etruscan pottery price offer. In 1842 the Treasury granted him X2oo, on the recommendation of the Master-General of the Ordnance, ‘for remuneration as the original inventor of percussion firearms’ antique cigar chair with wood arms. This was four years after the first issue of percussion arms to -the Army, and was presumably the parsimonious reflection of the stirring of the official conscience antique pottey work table. About four months after Forsyth’s death the M antique occasional table inlaid roses.G baluster leg draw leaf table.O popular art techniques and their origin. represented that the previous reward was inadequate, with the result that Forsyth’s three surviving relatives received the’further sum of ki000 to divide between them mid century modern spider leg coffee table.
The expiration of Forsyth’s patent, of course, resulted in the appearance of a large number of new designs of percussion locks 1740’s art dining. Joseph Manton’s tube-lock reappeared, and became a great favourite for the big punt guns used against wildfowl regency furniture history.
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It gave the particularly powerful flash which was required to ignite the large charge of coarse powder with which these guns were customarily loaded 18th century drinking glasses.
A number of new pellet locks were also devised; but although a few were used for a time on fowling-pieces, they had no lasting influence on the design of percussion locks, and they cannot be claimed as being in the line of development which led to military percussion arms jacobian furniture.
The invention which really made the percussion lock a practical military proposition was the copper cap expensive antique utensils. This extremely simple device had results of such far-reaching importance that there were several claimants to the honour of having invented it 1880s cooking utensils. The cap was a thimble-shaped piece of copper with a charge of detonating mixture inside-its crown five legs two leaf oak antique dining table. This was placed on a nipple having a central vent which cominunicated with the charge of gunpowder in the chamber of the gun antique empire candlestick. All that was required to fire the gun was the blow of the hammer on the cap antique pedestal regency sideboard.
It seems now to have been established beyond doubt that the inventor of the cap was an English landscape painter named Joshua Shaw, who emigrated to America in 1816 antique chinese scroll coffee table.
Shaw designed his first lock in 1814 art deco reproductions clock. This was an early form of the ultimate design weisweiller furniture. The cap, however, was of steel, and the priming mixture was inserted separately into the crown of the cap as a pellet antique table with enamel top and cup design. Unlike the final copper cap, this steel cap was not thrown away after firing, but was- used again with a fresh pellet robert jupe extending circular table copy. A gun with a lock of this design was made for Shaw by Roantree, a Durham gunsmith directoire napoleon furniture. Forsyth’s monopoly, however, prevented Shaw from securing a patent austria furniture company. Nevertheless he carried on his experiments, first replacing the steel cap with an expendable one of pewter; and ultimately, in 1816, with the copper cap joan klock, amsterdam, clockmaker. It may have been his inability to manufacture his copper-cap lock’ in England which caused Shaw to go to America antique bentwood rocking chair. There his invention was successful, and eventually he was employed by the United States Government in making percussion caps for experimental military arms tecnical drawings antique. Whilst engaged on this work in 1831 an explosion disabled his left hand late classical pier table. Shaw put in a claim for compensation, which was recognized by Congress; but it was not till sixteen years later that Congress awarded him a sum of $ x 6,000 for past and future rights in his invention kent extending antique table.
In the meantime it appears that in England Joseph Manton had obtained some knowledge of Shaw’s copper cap antique korean porcelain. Possibly he had heard of it before the latter’s departure for America malard furniture. In any case about 1818 he made such a cap; and as soon as Forsyth’s patent had expired he started selling arms with the copper-cap percussion lock louis 16th style furniture. Manton had an enthusiastic backer in Colonel Peter Hawker of Longparish, Hampshire, a famous spprtsman, author of a well-known book called Instructions to Toung Sportsmen, wounded in the Peninsular campaign, and Lieutenant-Colonel of the North Hampshire Militia antique frnech empire furniture. In his book Hawker claimed that he ‘was a patron of Joseph Manton and made many field trials of his guns, and contributed to the design and inventions of Joseph Manton’ wm iv 3 pedestal dining room table. He goes on to say that he suggested the idea of the copper cap -to Joseph Manton when he was engaged on his tube bloomsbury london arts and crafts. lock, and that the latter reluctantly agreed to try it antique drop front desk. Manton certainly labelled his first gun fitted with a lock of this type ‘Made from the Original Design of Colonel Peter Hawker’ antique ceramic indian elephant end table. Writing some time after the event the recollection of this gesture by Manton may have coloured Hawker’s memory antique tea table carved japanese.
Manton, however, was not the only English gunsmith to make a copper cap in 1818 architect jon monteith gates. Joseph Egg of Piccadilly may even have preceded Manton, and he was making guns with the cap percussion lock at the same time banquet table antique middle ages. Furthermore, he was labelling the cases with the manifestly inaccurate legend, ‘Inventor of the Percussion Cap’ can decorative moulding be antique bookcase.
By the x 8 2o’s, then, percussion arms were a commonplace amongst sportsmen 18th empire furniture. It was to be many years yet before they were to be placed in the hands of the soldiers flemish refectory table.

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Hennem was requested to make thirty of his screwless locks for Durs Egg’s breech-loading cavalry carbines austro hungarian empire architecture .: and two months later he was directed to make ninety muskets to the design of the Master-General, of the Ordnance (now the Duke of Richmond) and to fit them with his locks chippendale drum table 2 drawers . On the ist October 1785 Major-General O’Hara, Colonel of the 22nd Foot (now The Cheshire *Regiment), invited Hennem to fit his locks to all the muskets in his regiment john widdicomb furniture/french provincial . O’Hara must presumably have seen and been extremely impressed with the 2oth’s trial muskets, for the alteration was a very expensive one to carry out under regimental arrangements amphora czechoslovakia . It must have looked to Hennem as if the future of his lock was assured, and yet it seems that O’Hara’s was the last important order that he had meubles decoration antique europe .
On the 22nd February 1′786 Hennem offered *to modify the stocks of Sergeant’s, carbines and to replace the existing locks with his own for an inclusive charge of 155 barley sugar twist pillars timber . -for each carbine george iii serving table . This offer was politely rejected with the explanation that a change of the firearms of the Army was under consideration small antique sutherland table . The change was due to a competitive venture by Hennem’s erstwhile backer or co-operator, Henry Nock delftware t.i holland .
Nock was one of the leading gunsmiths in both London and Birmingham ivan chermayeff, furniture . He held Government contracts for the manufacture of muskets and carbines, and produced, in addition, many ingenious and original weapons of various types brass frame girandole images . He designed, for instance, a ‘volley gun’ with seven barrels all fired by one hammer at the same time, and intended for Naval boarding parties; four- and seven-barrel revolving pistols; a heavy piece, or ‘wall-gun’, with a repeating action; and several others how much is a victorian dressing table worth . He was obviously the type of gunmaker to whom Jonathan Hennem’s lock would have appealed silver spoon design europe 18th century .
What the arrangement was between Hennem northern europe in the 16th and 17th century . and Nock is not known early 19th century upholstery fabric . It may be that Hennem was too independent a character for Nock’s liking pier roger vandercruse . In any case he had found an eccentric genius who had invented a lock which was somewhat similar to Hennem’s, though more complicated bulbous leg dining table . This was a mathematician named George Bolton, who at one time had been tutor to the children of George III 18th century silver mote spoon . He had devoted a large part of his spare time to the improvement of gun-locks; and seems to have established a gun shop in London in 1773 with another Bolton (F luxury art deco upholstery fabrics . H jennens & bettridge tole tray .), who was perhaps a brother rococo revival marquetry-inlaid wardrobe .
The Bolton lock also had no screws, and all its components were enclosed between two plates, of which the outer (in the position of the normal lock plate) was fitted with pins to hold the moving parts antique double claw pedestal dining room table . A special feature was the accurate machining to standard dimensions, which permitted the easy replacement of breakages antique inlaid pembroke table .
Nock seems to have acquired the sole rights in this lock, for most, if not all, of those made for the Government bear his name ‘H scheid enamel . Nock’ on the plate tripod table, claw and ball foot, antique . In, probably, 1785 Nock produced a new range of military firearms, comprising musket, pistol and carbine, which he submitted as suggested replacements for the Brown Bess series of flintlocks antiques furniture,josef hoffmann . Initially he seems to have* met with considerable success chinese porcelain wall decoration mask history . Trials carried out with his arms must have been satisfactory, for they led to a cessation of orders to Hennem, and a large number were issued to regiments of Horse and Foot for extensive trial turn top walnut tea/card table . Further, it does not appear that art deco consoles . ultimate approval was doubted, for a very large number of the locks were manufactured, and it is reasonable to suppose that these were intended for the conversion of existing flintlocks antique collectors cabinets . Nevertheless the Nock arms were rejected after only a short trial 1940’s art deco black and gray lacquer bedroom set prices . There must have been some weakness in the lock which led to it comparing unfavourably with the sturdy old Brown Bess under active service conditions apostle tea spoons made in england .
One of Nock’s most notable contributions to the development of firearms was the invention of his ‘Patent Breeching’ renaisance design dining table made .
It was too expensive a refinement ever to have been adopted for military firearms, but it drew attention to the advantages obtained by more rapid and more efficient explosion of the charge german 1930 furniture value .
It had been known for some time that if, instead of the ordinary flat-surfaced breech-plug, a special type known as a `chamber-plug’ was fitted, a more powerful explosion resulted antique double pedestal dining room table . In this form of breech the diameter of the powder chamber was slightly less than the bore of the gun, and the breech end was a rounded hollow cut out of the breech-plug 5″ antique rectangular drop leaf table with drawer . From the centre of this hollow was drilled a narrow channel, called the `ante-chamber’, which received a portion of the powder and which connected at right angles with a vent running outwards to the touch-hole of the gun antique brass mirror convex eagle . The idea was that the flame
from the touch-hole, instead of igniting a corner of the charge, “antique furniture” - writing bureau and display cabinet .9
passed through the ante-chamber and through the centre of the powder, thereby igniting all of it at the same moment 17th century antique trinket boxes . The greater power of the explosion resulted in a higher initial beilby glass prince of wales feathers newcastle . velocity of the bullet; in other words, the full force of the powder was exercised in a shorter distance types of bureaux . It was therefore possible to use a shorter barrel; and the barrels of ‘chambered’ pieces were from six to ten inches shorter than those of firearms with the normal pattern of breech characteristics of english medieval gateleg table .
The disadvantage of the ‘chambered’ gun was that the flame had to travel down the touch-hole vent and thence through the ante-chamber before it reached the main chamber; a considerably longer distance than the usual direct contact between touch-hole and charge cabriole leg demilune table . The flintlock already suffered from the delay between pressure on the trigger and ignition of the charge antique oval drop leaf dining table with turned legs . In ‘chambered’ guns it was much greater, and the sportman had little chance of hitting a fleeting target art-deco-1920-1930-wood .
Nock’s feat was to invent a breech which produced the same power as one fitted with the chamber-plug, and yet with less delay between the fall of the cock and the explosion than was experienced with the ordinary flintlock breech antique rectangle drop leaf table cabinet .
Instead of a hollow the Nock breech-plug had a deep cavity cut in it to receive the charge antique french cabriolet dresser . The rounded end of this cavity was connected by a very short passage to a wide ante-chamber cut through the breech-plug from one side to the other art decos exotic bronze chair . One end of this ante-chamber was closed by a screw, to give access for cleaning, and the other by a gold or platinum plug drilled in the centre with the touch-hole 18th century drum tables . Since in loading some powder fell through into the ante-chamber, and the passage separating it from the main chamber was only about -at inch, the touch-hole was as in close effective contact with the charge as in the conventional breech antique walnut dining table 10 foot . Furthermore, the powder in the ante-chamber was so closely confined that it exploded as soon as the flame from the priming powder reached it, instead of being set on fire first as in the normal piece turn a silver tray into a table .
The vast improvement in the performance of flintlock weapons which was effected by Nock’s invention has been rather overshadowed by Forsyth’s more efficient solution of the same problem with the percussion lock english antique trays .
SWORDS IN THE
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
Progress towards the standardization of swords throughout the Army was far slower than in the case of firearms jean rene prou furniture . Regulation patterns for musket, carbine and pistol had been introduced in the reign of King James II; but it was not till near the end of the eighteenth century that there was Army uniformity of swords 19th c english tin glazed pottery . Long before that there must have been similarity in the swords carried by regiments of the same arm of the Service because there was bound to be a limit to the number of types which the swordsmiths turned out, and these types would conform in general to popular military demand clock singer music candlesticks . Variations between regiments, therefore, would be chiefly minor modifications of the normal type in accordance with the taste of* the Colonels sofa carved top rail . The officers’ swords would tend to differ much more than those of the men, because being more expensive and privately purchased there would be little difficulty in satisfying even the most exotic requirements chinese porcelain decorators . But two factors would tend to preserve some uniformity: firstly, the Colonel of a regiment would often, probably, insist on his officers being armed alike; and secondly, the fashion of the moment is a very powerful factor, particularly amongst very young men value of primitive antique work bench .
After the end of Queen Anne’s wars on the Continent infantry soldiers still seem to have been armed with the hanger 19th century empire daybed . It appears, however, to have been exceedingly unpopular; probably because the possession of a bayonet would make a sword seem an unnecessary encumbrance meissen cris de paris . Several infantry units seem to have stopped wearing swords altogether, for on the 1st December 1724 an order was issued to the Army which by its wording inferred a widespread irregularity biedermeier candelabra . The order read:
`The King is determined to have all the N what is a double gate leg table .C macassar ebony furniture .O ironstone ware japanese willow .’s and men of His foot forces wear swords antique round dining tables with extensions .’
Nevertheless Authority was fighting a losing battle gothic arch furniture . Once the fighting troops have decided that a particular piece of equipment serves no useful purpose there is little chance of its being carried on active service weimar germany china antique . By the middle of the century many regiments had far less than their proper complement of swords, and some had none at all makers of antique table clock with music in china .
At some period Grenadier companies were given basket-hilted swords, instead of the usual brass-hilted hangers wardrobes 19th century . The Grenadiers of the 4th Foot (later The King’s Own Royal Regiment) had them in 1727, those of the 40th Foot were wearing them in about 1750, and a water-colour by Sandby shows the Grenadiers of the Coldstream wearing straight steel basket-hilted swords in 1747•
There does not seem to have been any material change during the- first half of the eighteenth century in the type of swords carried by infantry officers refectory table . In 1746 those of the 4th Foot had a steel hilt, and the scabbard was leather with steel mounts antique deco tub chair .
A typical cavalry sword of 1750, carried by both Horse and Dragoons, had a straight single-edged blade and a full basket-hilt 20th century furniture development in france . The pattern of basket-hilt varied from regiment to regiment, and those of the King’s Own Regiment of Dragoons, for instance, were of brass french animal chairs . The 3rd and 4th Irish Horse, instead of a straight blade, had one which was curved and slightly shorter than the normal kommode roentgen . The length of the blade was 31-1 inches and the breadth 1j inches gilt metal mounted pier table .
There is a Dragoon sword of about 1742 which is of interest as probably being of a fairly typical general pattern, and yet with distinctive regimental characteristics octagon mahogany antique table value . The blade is straight with a single edge and a length of thirty-six inches john walton antiques . The hilt is iron, but only half basket, and with a fishskincovered hilt bound with twisted brass wire how much would an antique clawfoot dresser cost . From the hilt hangs a buff leather sword knot with runner and tassel value of silver candelabra . The scabbard is of black leather, carried in a frog suspended from a shoulder belt 1980 scandinavian leather chair recliner barcelona .
In 1735 the drummers of the 8th Dragoons were distinguished by carrying scimitar swords; and in 1754 special swords were used to denote rank in the Royal Dragoons: brass-hilted swords being issued to serjeants and corporals 16th cent. sideboard .
When in 1755 a Light Troop was added to each regiment of Dragoon Guards and Dragoons on the British establishment, the Royal Warrant laid down that the men were to have `a short cutting sword 34 ins picture of pennsylvania house antique cherry buffet claw feet . long in the blade with a light hilt without basket’ penwork italian . This regulation was typical of the time in that it gave a very general specification and ample scope to Colonels of regiments to choose what they wished antique mahogony carved dressing table . The blade could apparently be either straight or curved and the hilt of any pattern so long as it was light and without a basket antique draw leaf tables . Captain Hinde, in his The Discipline of the Light Horse, deals with both the Light Troops and the subsequent regiments of Light Dragoons, the first of which was raised in 1759 confidante sofas . It is unlikely that there was very much change in the Light Dragoon sword between the time the Light Troops were raised and the formation of the Light Dragoon regiments; but at the time Hinde wrote the sword blade had been lengthened to thirty-seven inches old silver lustre myott . Hinde’s description of the swords carried by officers and men is given in Chapter V, and it will be- noted that the pattern of sword was still left to the choice of the commanding marquetry inlaid trays . officer seated harlequin with a tankard, johann kandler . An illustration in Hinde’s book shows a trooper of a regiment of Light Dragoons armed with a straight-bladed double-edged sword, with no hilt protection other than counter curved quillons indian antique tea kettles . In addition to the mounted pattern, officers apparently had a special sword for parades on foot verlys france . Of these Hinde says: ‘The Officers Parade Swords for Foot Duty, are about 28 Inches Long in the Blade, and worn in a Belt round the Waist’ antique side chair desk . Even the length of swords, however, does not always seem to have complied with regulations french 18th century bureau cabinet . Of his own regiment, the Royal Foresters, Hinde says: `Their Swords were remarkably Long, and quite straight’ makers of 1940’s american art deco furniture .
Farriers did not carry swords antique fold over table . According to Hinde: ‘They carry an Ax at their Left Side in a Belt of the same Colour of the Mens over the Right Shoulder, and a White Apron rolled back on their Left Side jupe patent extending dining table . When the Men draw their Swords, the Farriers take their Axes from, their Sides, and place the Handle on their Right Thighs Advanced, with the Edge turned towards their Horses Heads; they might carry a Saw on their Right Sides, in a Belt over the Left Shoulder, and a Spade in a flat Bucket under the Right deco tub chair . Budget, like the Carbines coming under the Right Arm art deco antiques contemporary world paris .’
Captain Hinde’s remarks on weapons may be fittingly concluded with his method of preventing arms from rusting antique american empire card table with scroll feet . This is as follows:
` antique furniture empire chest of drawers .d Receipt to keep Zrms from Rust nouveau art draws .
‘One Ounce of Campshire to Two Pounds of Hogs-Lard, Dissolve them together and take off the Scum; Mix as much Black-Lead as will bring them to an Iron Colour: Rub your Arms over with this, and let it lie on Twenty-four Hours, then Clean them as well as possible with a Linen Cloth, and they will keep without the least Rust for Six Months fold over tea table .’
The Royal Warrant of 1768, which dealt in detail with the clothing and equipment of the Army, made some attempt to secure reasonable uniformity in swords value staffordshire engine turned redware teapots 18th century . It laid down that the swords of each regiment were to be uniform and proscribed patterns and colours for sword-knots, belts, etc 19th century antique hall table ., and gold or silver coloured metal for hilt and scabbard appointments, according to the colour of the buttons old fashioned table brass metal claw feet on casters .
As regards the rank and file of the infantry the Warrant recognized what was practically a fait accompli empire card table . It said:
‘SWORDS antique card table withe one flap .
`All the Serjeants of the Regiment, and the whole Grenadier Company, to have swords spanish table antique turned legs . The Corporals and Private Men of the Battalion Companies (excepting the Regiment of Royal Highlanders) to have no Swords 16th century english joyned table .’
The Royal Highlanders (42nd Foot, or Black Watch) were presumably excepted because, like the Grenadiers, they wore the broadsword with basket hilt chippendale pinecone . The privilege was not appreciated, however, and the 42nd got into hot water for discarding their swords on the pretext that bayonets had proved far more useful in the American War 18th century antique gate leg table . However, the 42nd’s opinion of infantry swords seems to have received support from senior officers with war experience, for in 1783 they were given permission to return their swords to store french cabriole leg tracing pattern . The following year a Board of General Officers, which had been established to examine the soldier’s equipment in the light of the war in America, reported that Grenadiers had never worn their swords in action and recommended their abolition 19 century mahogany gateleg table . As a result swords were abolished throughout the infantry for all rank and file except drummers antique pottey work table . For these latter, the Royal Warrant of 1768 had specified ‘a short sword with a scimitar blade’; which was, in point of fact, a hanger vintage cherry table with queen ann legs .
Somewhat paradoxically the sword was about to become the principal weapon of the infantry officer at about the same time as it was being withdrawn from the remaining rank and file maurice dufrene, design .
The changes in officers’ shaft weapons is somewhat complicated 18th century occasional table . At the beginning of the eighteenth century captains and lieutenants of infantry had pikes and ensigns find 1954 crystal green tinted wine glasses . half-pikes telescopic table pedestal . In 1710, or thereabouts, captains reverted to the spontoon yuan muhammadan blue . At possibly the same time the lieutenant’s weapon was changed to a half-pike antique hanging corner display cabinet . In 1743 all officers of foot were directed to carry spontoons s s meissen mark . The spontoon was then the infantry officer’s principal weapon; but not, it seems, a very popular one gabriel viardot . That some difficulty was experienced in making officers carry it is shown by the following extract from an order book of the Brigade of Guards stationed in Germany in 1761-2:
`28th April rectangular table dressing . Colonel Thomas having remarked that the use of the espontoon is grown into a kind of disuse amongst the Officers of late, the naked sword or firelock being substituted in its room (a liberty which never used or ought to be allowed but upon emergencies), desires it may be resumed on all occasions in the Coldstream Battalion when it used to be!
The carrying of a ‘firelock’ was an adoption of the practice in Grenadier companies where all officers carried a light flintlock, generally a privately purchased weapon staffordshire figure prince “zebra” .
The American war finally dealt the death blow to the officer’s spontoon antique vargueno . Of the 63rd Foot in 1784, for instance, the Inspecting General commented: ‘Just arrived from America, where the officers never made use of espontoons; saluted with swords’ antique buffet sideboard signed by cabinet maker . Two years later the carrying of spontoons by infantry officers was abolished century pembroke .
Serjeants carried halberds for practically the whole of the eighteenth century, but in 1792 they were directed to carry pikes instead scandinavian aesthetic . This order did not in the first instance 1940’s mahogany dining chairs .apply to serjeants of Grenadier and Fusilier companies who, like the officers, carried flintlocks, but later in the same year they too were ordered to carry pikes meissen porcelain bronze . Serjeants of Light companies, who also carried flintlocks, were permitted to continue to do so english ironstone pottery ltd .

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SWINEFEATHERS apostle spoons .
Top: A Swinefeather and its Case antique gateleg extention table .
Bottom: Combined Musket-rests and Swinefeathers antique spanish sideboard .
Dragoon—A flintlock (not a silver tripod table . matchlock) musket (which I hold much better for dragoon service, being upon occasion they may be able to make use of their snaphaunces on horseback, and upon any service in the night they may go undiscovered’); a belt to hang the musket on; a long tuck; a swinefeather identify furniture legs 1930 .
THE BIRTH OF THE REGULAR ARMY
With the restoration of the Monarchy the large and well-trained army of the Commonwealth was disbanded rococo medallion sofas . But from it, and from the exiled followers of the new King, was formed the British Regular Army art deco china cabinet . It was only a small army: a mere handful of regiments of horse and foot porcelain jug representing the four continents and a queen as europa . Its requirements in equipment were therefore comparatively small, and easily satisfied from the vast stocks of military stores which were available after the disbandment of Cromwell’s troops regency sofa . The King was far too poverty-stricken to provide his Army with more modern arms; and thus through the whole of his reign the troops were armed with substantially the same weapons with which the Civil War had been fought dining room table with white pillar legs .
The first scale of arms for the Army is contained in two contemporary documents gothic iron garden seat . In a M leaves for old oak table? .S latter carving on pembroke table . book which contains the establishment of the Army as it was formed in 1661, it is laid down that:
`Each horseman to have neoclassical regency furniture period . palissy dishware . marquetry semi-circle drop leaf . a sword, a case of Pistolls, the Barrells whereof to be not under fourteens inches length, and each Trooper of the Horse Guards is also to have a carbine 19th century regency furniture . The Musquet of every Musquettere is to be three feete in length in the Barrell, And the Bore to bee for Bullets of twelve in the pound, and each Pikeman to have a Pike made of Ash not under sixteens feete in length Head and Foote included antique furniture 1800 .’
Two years later the ‘Orders and Instructions’ of the Sth May 1663 directed that: antique gateleg table small . upholstered desk chair with cabriole legs . bob-box century . each Horseman to have what is a harlequin pattern . black leather armchair for desk . antique writing utensils . A sword, a Case of pistolles, the barrells whereof are not to be under fourtecen Inches in length, and each Trooper of Our Guards to have a Carbine, besides the aforesaid Armes, And the foot to have each Souldier a Sword, and each Pikeman a Pike of 16 foote long and not under, and each Musqueteer a Musquet, wth a Collar of Bandaliers, the barrell of which Musket to be about foure foot long, and to conteine a bullet fourteen well shall weigh a pound Weight antique black irish dresser .’
Whilst these documents are in substantial agreement, there is a surprising difference iii two lengths given for the musket barrel antique cherry drop leaf tables . Four feet was the normal measurement, but it may be that when the Army was first formed some relaxation was allowed in order that some of the non-standard arms available could be issued antique bookshelf design . As regards the apparent differences in the musket bore, one of these probably related to the nominal bore and the other to the actual weight of the bullets swansea duck egg .
There are two further points of interest: a trooper of the Horse Guards carried a carbine as well as two pistols; and the pike had been reduced in length to sixteen feet song dynasty bluish green glazed earthenware .
The eventual doom of the pike was heralded in two extracts which appear in Book W 5 leg antique table .O antique stemware+cobalt blue . 47/5 in the Public Record Office:
4 14 March, 166,2 antique english dressing table . Ordered that the french pikes and ye short swords or Byonettes that lately were recd finmar aalto artek . from Dunkirk be surveyed & an accompt presented to the office of their defects to ye end a Contract may bee made for their speedy repaire antique bedroom furniture with fan brass handles .’
4 17 March, 166-2 console tables tubular uk . Ordered yt ye Byonettes lately recd from Dunkirk to be issued to the psons foil antique wood inlayed wine cellaret photos . to be by them made cleave and repaired & returned with io daies space at rod ape antique chinese carved wood nest of tables .
It would thus appear that Soo bayonets were obtained from France, and that they had already seen hard service and required overhauling japanese antique boxes . Bayonets were already issued to at least part of the French Army, for in his oval loudon floral 1783-1843 .4rt de la guerre Puys6ger notes their use in 1647 valuable antique basketry marks . They were plug bayonets with handles and blades which were both twelve inches long classic furniture.dwg . It is probable that Charles II or his officers had seen and admired them in France, and it may be that this worn lot were obtained either very cheaply or as a gift from the French King cabriole design .
The plug bayonet apparently originated in the short, broad-bladed knife which was carried by hunters, and which had a round handle which could be fitted into the barrel of the gun in an emergency what is a double gate leg table .
The trial of the bayonet in the British Army was evidently a success; for a Royal Warrant of the 2nd April z 67 contained the following:
CHARLES R antique draw leaf dining table .
`Our Will and Pleasure is, that a Regiment of Dragoons, which we have established and ordered to be raised, in Twelve Troopes of fourscore in each beside officers, who are to be under the command of Oure most deare and most entirely beloved Cousin Prince Rupert, shall be armed out of Our stores remaining within Our office of the Ordinance antique paintings of trinidad west indies . gillows decorating firm . king george sofa table with iron lion legs . the soldiers of the several Troopes aforesaid, are to have and carry each of them one match-locke musquet, with a collar of bandaleers, and also to have and carry one bayonet or greate knife angouleme dihl .’
After this initial issue to one regiment, the adoption of the bayonet throughout the Army seems to have been somewhat slow george scheidt enamel . This was only natural, as the combination of musket and pike was a well-tried one in the infantry, and, war being a dangerous pastime, there is always an understandable reluctance to replace proved weapons by new and to act as escort to the artillery, and the light fuzil was better suited to their particular duties than the cumbersome matchlock mahogany coffee tables that incorporate a glass display case in centre . It will be noted, however, that the fuzil, although of carbine bore, was built as an infantry weapon, for the barrel was of matchlock length swan plate kandler .
Rests still formed part of the equipment of the musketeer, but they were seldom taken on active service, and were generally only used for ceremonial parades and duties carved african tripod table with chess board .
The introduction of Grenadiers into the new British Army marked the recognition of a weapon which had proved its value in the Civil War imperial gateleg table with japanese decorations . Explosive hand missiles had been used in warfare for very many years, but they were crude in manufacture and fairly ineffective in use first antique table de chevet . Those first used in the Civil War were also of doubtful value antique regency furniture . The filling aperture was generally closed by means of a wooden plug, in the side of which was a slot so that one end of a piece of slow match could be pushed into the interior nineteenth century gillow chair . The other end of the match was lit before the grenade was thrown wedgewood stoneware . The disadvantage of this method was that it was difficult to judge the correct length of match antiquite dressers . If it was too long the enemy often had time to throw it back again before it exploded sheriton roll top antique bureau . If it was too short it exploded in the air or even in the thrower’s hand maurice dufrene, design . The difficulty was surmounted by a most ingenious device antique extend side table . The wooden plug, instead of having the single slit, was bored with several holes chicken coups made into dressers . Into one of these a piece of match was inserted, and a bullet was fastened to the end inside the case sofa french 4 legs . Twigs were pushed into the other holes to act as a rudder like the feathers of an arrow and ensure that the match was kept to the rear during flight antique carved trestle table . When the grenade hit the ground or target the momentum carried the bullet forward and the lighted end of the match was pulled inside the case so causing the explosion walnut escritoire .
The grenades adopted for the Army in 1677 were better made and designed, but the percussion-ignition system was retained antique sideboards and buffets 1920 dutch . The military grenade weighed about 21 pounds and was 2-1 inches in diameter italian wood armchairs .
The subsequent life of grenades spanish vargueno . in the Army was comparatively short were exports scenes common in the chenghua period . During the eighteenth century they gradually dropped out of use; probably owing to the introduction throughout the Army of efficient flintlock weapons flatware forks types . The trench warfare of the Crimea brought them back into favour: and then they reappeared for some reason in the Sudan in 1884, But it was not till the First World War that the prestige of the grenade was restored to the level which it had acquired in the late seventeenth century antique drop leaf painted table 1800 .
Officers and sergeants of the infantry were still armed primarily with shafted weapons edge simplicity tub chair . These, however, were as much a symbol of rank as for serious use english stoneware marks . In 166o captains carried pikes, but by 1680 they had eight-foot spontoons antique hepplewhite sofa . Lieutenants started by carrying partizans, but in 168? they received pikes instead antique,dinning room table,gateleg,drop leaf . The sergeants were armed with halberds, which they retained until very nearly the end of the eighteenth century vintage gateleg dropleaf table .
In spite of the introduction of bayonets, musketeers were still equipped with swords american oak drop leaf table antique . Whilst there was no regulation
ti
pattern, something more serviceable than the rapier had gradually been evolved, with a straight cut-and-thrust blade and a simple guard with counter curved quillons, one of which was usually extended towards the pommel to form a knuckle bow paris style art deco desk .
It does not appear, however, that swords were popular with musketeers nancy galle furniture . According to the French writer Louis de Gaya, in his Traitl des armes of 1678, the English infantry seldom drew their swords but preferred to use the butts of their muskets at close quarters renaissance italian furniture style a bambocci and cupboards . This is understandable, since, without dropping the musket, the effective use of a sword must have been a difficult matter louis xviii style furniture . De Gaya was a captain in the Regiment of Champagne, and probably fought alongside the troops of King Charles II on the Continent antique double claw pedestal dining room table .Somewhere about x685 a sword with a short curved blade was introduced in supersession, or partial supersession, of the long straight-bladed sword antique english queen anne china cabinet with cabriole legs . This new weapon was known as a ‘hanger’ christening bowl used for . The blade was single-edged, curved towards the point, and about twenty-four inches in length art dec countries . The hilt’ was brass, and consisted of a rather flat double-shell and knuckle bow 19th century furniture archives . The grip was generally of wood and bound with wire boulle card table .
The first troops to be equipped with the hanger were the Grenadier companies of the infantry regiments; and it appears to have been, in fact, the first sword with which they were issued kem weber furniture designer prices .
The rapier was worn by officers long after it was discarded as an other ranks’ weapon, and it was probably carried by infantry officers during most of the reign of Charles II antique oval table with middle drop leaf . The sword which gradually replaced the rapier was of a somewhat similar type to that carried by the musketeers mahogany dining table cabriole legs . The blade was generally straight and intended for both cutting and thrusting antique little silver . The hilt was brass, and the guard comprised quillons and knuckle bow aaron burr desk .
From about 1685 officers of the Grenadier companies were armed with fuzil and plug bayonet, and thus carried neither sword nor shafted weapon 1800’s library tables .
At the end of Charles II’s reign privates of Horse and Dragoons had a sword with a straight blade and a steel full basket hilt inexpensive antique wardrobes . The blade was generally about thirty-eight inches long and sometimes double-edged universal statuary co mirror .
An improved method of carrying powder on the infantry soldier began to make its appearance during the 168o’s antique mahogany fretwork hanging cabinets . The bandolier, with its suspended and clattering wooden chargers, made silent movement by a body of troops virtually impossible sheffield plate 19th century . In its stead there was introduced a cartridge pouch, in which was placed a supply of made-up paper cartridges; each containing the requisite amount of powder (but not the ball) for one round of ammunition chamber pot cabinet commode 1800 . Such cartridges had already been in use for some time for the carbines and pistols of the cavalry antique book ends .
MARLBOROUGH’S ARMY
Charles II was succeeded by his brother, James II, a first-class administrator, who proceeded to expand the Army and to forge it into an efficient fighting machine repaint ceramic lamp .
One of the first results of the new regime was the production of a new scale of firearms to replace the many worn-out antiques which were still in service french makers of consoles gibier style 18th century . The effect of this was to give the Army a fairly standard armament, and, for the first time, regulation designs rococo writing table .
The new musket could be fitted either with a matchlock or a flintlock austro-hungarian +antique +furniture . It was a very substantial and heavy weapon lion head sphinx paws revival art chair . The* barrel was 451 inches long and made of very thick metal important american girandole mirror . The stock was painted black, and the barrel probably `russeted’ maples of london cabinetmakers . The matchlock was fashioned something after the style of a flintlock; the pan and cover being attached to the lock plate instead of, as previously, to the barrel petite french mantel antique clocks . The flintlock too was an improvement on its predecessor; the befter-designed lock which had been fitted to private arms for many years past being substituted for the old crude military lock classical revolving bookcase . Many of these muskets, as well as the other new firearms, bore the Royal cypher, J2R with crown over, on the lock plate antiquevenercoffeettableclawfeet . It has been suggested that this was a privilege restricted to the Household Troops and the Royal Regiments, and that it was not extended to all arms until the reign of George II antique mahogany rent table .
Matchlock muskets appear to have been issued only to the battalion companies of the infantry italian spider leg table . Fusilier regiments, Grenadier companies and Dragoon regiments had flintlocks paris exposition candlesticks . Muskets issued doric china longton england .to the Grenadiers were usually shorter and stouter in the barrel than the standard type 19th century bavarian side chairs . Some of them were fitted with steel grenade cups for firing grenades antique austria 1855 - 1953 statues . (A practice which was to be revived in the war of 1914-18 czechoslovakian lustreware .)
It was probably intended that as soon as economically practicable matchlock muskets should be converted to the more expensive flintlock william kent eagle console . It is likely that the battle of Sedge-moor was the last action in which matchlocks constituted the bulk of the infantry armament antique japanese tea table mother of pearl . By 1700 there can have been few, if any, matchlocks left antique brass mirror convex eagle .
All carbines and pistols were flintlocks staffordshire william kent . The former were lighter and smaller versions of the muskets with a barrel length of thirty-six inches boulle furniture . They had a steel suspension ring which moved on a ‘traveller’, or iron bar about world war 1 antique shovels . ten inches long, and was connected to a swivel and runner on the carbine belt antique octagon oak table . Pistols had a fourteen-inch barrel 4 section antique cutlery box .
The new muskets were issued with the plug bayonet regency pedestal desk buhl marquetry . This, of course, had the dual disadvantage that when it was fitted in the barrel the musket could not be fired, and when it was not so fitted the musket was not a close-quarters weapon antique 19th mahogany hepplewhite card table . These limitations led to the disaster of Killiecrankie in x689, when the English infantry were caught by the charging Highlanders in the process of fixing their bayonets into the musket barrels value of empire style china closet 1910 .
As a result of Killiecrankie, experiments seem to have been made with the ‘ring’ bayonet half tester bed . This was fitted to the musket by means of two rings which passed over the end of the muzzle and the grip of-the bayonet covered bowl/antique chinese doucai . General Hugh Mackay claimed that he invented this after the battle of Killiecrankie; but Puys6gur says that a regiment of the French Army had these bayonets in 1678 antique chests of drawers south wales .
The ring bayonet does not seem to have been a success; but the next invention, the socket bayonet, was 18th empire furniture . In this type the blade was attached to a short tube or socket which slid over the muzzle end of the musket barrel baroque rationalism . Socket bayonets suffered from the same initial trouble as the ring bayonets, that the external diameter of musket barrels varied too much to provide a standard bayonet which would fit even the majority of them american art deco bar furniture . Plug bayonets had a tapering handle and could thus be thrust into any barrel antiques table clock 1700 . In an effort to remedy the trouble bayonets with a socket split lengthwise were made, the idea being that the diameter of the socket could be adjusted to the size of the barrel which it was required to fit barley sugar twist pillars timber . Some antique display . of these were issued to Killigrew’s Dragoons in 17o6; for their equipment schedule lists: ‘Split socket bayonets to serve over a full bored musket’ antique china carving furniture .
Pikemen finally disappeared from the Army in 1702, and thereafter all private soldiers of the infantry were armed with musket and bayonet william iv furniture . The situation as regards the latter was, however, somewhat chaotic care of antique oak chest woodworm rot . An Ordnance Board report of 1706- says: ‘All the regiments raised since the disuse of pikes (1702) have provided bayonets india brass table tray . dutch delph pottery marks . biedermeier antique de . at their own charge 19th century 5 legged table . Few of the officers agree in the sort of bayonets fit to be used or in the manner of fixing them as may appear by the various sorts there are of them in the Army modern oriental writing bureau .’ It is probable that throughout the wars of William III and Anne most units were still equipped with the plug bayonet holland and sons ivory marquetry . But the socket bayonet must have been in fairly extensive use; for the Ordnance records of 1704 show that socket bayonets had been sent to Portugal, although 3000 plug bayonets were available in the Tower stores 17th century oak tables .
The blade of the socket bayonet appeared in a number of different shapes before a 1800’s library table . standard type was finally adopted england biedermeier chest of drawers . This was triangular in section, tapering to a point, and with two of its sides deeply grooved, or ‘fullered’ glasgow art nouveau antiques . With various modifications this triangular socket bayonet remained as the standard Army weapon until 18 8 8 19th century drum table examples .

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MUSKET AND PIKE
An attempt to produce some order in the manufacture of firearms had an odd terminological result. In the army of Piedmont, before the battle of Moncontour in 1569, there were so many sizes of bore amongst the arquebuses that ammunition supply became a difficult problem. To overcome this 7000 arquebuses were ordered of one calibre, and referred to as ‘harquebuze de calibre de Monsieur le Prince’. The type of arquebus which was made to comply with this order had a bore of 10 or 11, weighed 12 pounds and had a barrel length of 42 inches. It became so popular that its use on the Continent became very widespread, and it appeared in England during the last quarter of the sixteenth century.. The original cumbersome reference had been contracted by the soldiers to `Calibre du Prince’, and later simply to ‘Calibre’. This became anglicized as ‘Caliver’, and in 1578 the Tower of London had 7000 of them in store. They were matchlocks, rather. heavier than the previous pattern of arquebus, and about four feet ten inches in overall length. Eventually the term came to mean any firearm which was light enough to be fired without a rest. ‘Arquebus’ was then frequently applied to cavalry wheel-lock arms.
In 1595 the Trained Bands were ordered to exchange their bows for calivers and muskets, and by this time calivers formed part of the armament of every English infantry unit. In fact, in a levy for Ireland of the following year, the ’shot accounted for half the infantry, and of these three-quarters were armed with calivers and only one-quarter with muskets. The days of the caliver, however, were numbered; for, unlike the musket, its shot was too light to pierce heavy armour.
The musket was actually earlier in origin than the caliver, having been invented in about 1546, though its adoption in England was somewhat slow. It was, essentially, an improved form of matchlock arquebus, with a greater g rane and accuracy and firing a heavier
rang
It had a barrel 4 feet long, a bore of 8 or io, and was designed to penetrate the heaviest protective armour. Its weight was 2o pounds, and it was consequently necessary to support the barrel on a forked rest. The first type of musket seems to have been too cumbersome to use for anything except siege warfare, and the Duke of Alva has been stated to have been the first to adapt it for use in the field, in his campaign in the Netherlands in
1567. By the time of the Civil War the musket had been considerably lightened, and it was possible to use it without a rest.
In one respect the musket was destined to achieve undying
FIG. 41. A MATCH-BOX.
fame; for its name came to denote any shoulder firearm, and even ‘rifle’ is merely a shortened form of ‘rifled musket’.
One of the disadvantages of the matchlock was the match. In very wet weather it was liable to be extinguished. To give some protection a ‘match-box’ was introduced. This was a tube of pewter, latten or tin, about a foot long, with holes in the side to let in aif.
It was this difficulty with the .match which was responsible for the development of spark ignition. The first substance to be employed for this purpose was pyrites; a mineral which included a combination of iron and sulphur. The mechanism in which it was used was known as the ‘wheel-lock’, and was invented in Nuremberg about 1517. A fragment of pyrites was held in contact with a steel wheel which had a serrated

FIG, 42. WHEEL- LOCKS.
Top: A Wheel-lock Carbine, Elizabeth I. Bottom: A Wheel-lock Dag, Edward VI.
edge. The wheel was rotated by the release of a powerful V-spring attached to the lock plate. The resulting stream of parks was directed at the priming powder.
The spindle of the wheel had a square end, and the lock was set by fitting a key, or spanner, to the spindle and winding it in a clockwise direction. This pulled a short chain of about three links round the spindle, and tautened the spring. After a three-quarter turn a scear (spring catch), which was fixed on the inside of the lock plate, engaged a slot on the wheel.
The flash-pan was then primed and closed. The bottom of the pan, however, was pierced to admit the top of the wheel. The piece of pyrites, which was held in a clamp at the head of the cock, was next lowered on to the top of the pan cover. Assuming it to have been loaded, the weapon was now ready for firing.
Pressure on the trigger drew back the scear and released the spring, causing the wheel to revolve. An ingenious device then caused the pan cover to open. A cam attached to the wheel spindle struck an arm which was connected to the pan cover. This opened the latter, permitting the pyrites to fall on the wheel. The pan cover was then held open by a spring catch.
The wheel-lock was, as may be imagined, an extremely
FIG. 43. WHEEL-LOCK DAGS.
expensive firearm to make, particularly when compared with the simple matchlock. Its adoption in England was consequently slow, and it never became a general issue to the infantry. It was a very useful lock, however, for a horseman. The management of a matchlock on horseback was a difficult feat, for the match had to be kept alight and any adjustments made to it with one hand.
The first single-handed firearms were intended for the horse soldier. These were the dags or tacks, the forerunners of pistols. The first dags were, in appearance, small arquebuses with wheel-locks. In 1544 they were introduced into England as a cavalry weapon.
The wheel-lock, also known as a firelock, suffered from two disadvantages; the first was the expense, and the second the weakness of the pyrites, which was liable to break into pieces. The demand for a sound and inexpensive method of spark transmission led to the introduction of the flintlock. The name originally given to this new mechanism was ’snaphaunce’. This was derived from the Dutch snaphaan, meaning a pecking fowl, and referred to the pecking motion of the cock.
The sparks in the flintlock were produced by striking a piece of flint against a case-hardened steel plate, with serrated ridges on its face. The flint was held in- a clamp at the top of the cock. The ’steel’, against which the flint was struck, worked on an arm which was hinged to the lock plate and held in position by a V-spring. To fire the weapon the cock -was drawn back, thereby compressing the main spring, which in turn actuated an internal tumbler connected to the cock. The scear engaged the tumbler and held the cock in the fully open position. The steel was then lowered towards the rear of the piece and on to the lip of the flash-pan; bringing it within range of the cock. Pulling the trigger drew back the scear, thereby releasing the cock; with the result that the flint struck the steel, directing a stream of sparks into the pan. This last was uncovered, during the forward movement of the cock, through a tumbler actuating a steel link which thrust against the lower part of the pan cover.
This type of flintlock was complicated and still fairly expensive. It was little used in England, though some of the troops ordered to Ireland in i58o are said to have been armed with it. On the Continent, however, it was in common use for a long time. In England it was superseded in the first quarter of the seventeenth century by the so-called ‘English lock’ flintlock. This was a much better and simpler weapon than the original snaphaunce, and the mechanism remained basically the same for all future flintlock firearms.
In the English lock the steel and pan cover were combined in a single piece which was called the ‘hammer’. This consisted of a hinged pan cover which worked upon a screw set in the lock plate and held in either the open or closed positions by a V-spring. The steel, or striking surface, rose approximately at right angles in a curve from the free end of the cover. When the cock was released the flint hit the steel, causing a shower of sparks, and at the same time pushed the whole member back on the hinge, so uncovering the priming powder to the sparks. The firing mechanism was practically the same as that of the snaphaunce, but the weapon could be put at safety by raising the cock half-way and leaving the pan
FIG. 44. AN ARQUEBUS WITH SNAPHAUNCE LOCK.
closed. This “half-cock’ position was achieved by providing a notch on the tumbler in which the scear engaged.
On some English locks there was an additional safety device. This was a catch on the outside of the lock plate which engaged in a notch on the cock when it was in the `half-cock’ position. This type of safety-catch was called a dog-catch and locks so fitted were known as doglocks.
Although the term `snaphaunce’ seems to have been applied originally to those flintlocks with separate pan covers and steels, it appears to have been soon used, in the early seventeenth century, to denote all flintlocks.
The difficulty of managing a matchlock on horseback has already been mentioned. Nevertheless in about I 53o a modification of the arquebus was produced for this purpose. It was called a ‘Petronel’ or ‘poitrinal’, names derived from the French and signifying that the weapon was intended to be fired from the chest. It was shorter than the arquebus but of a large calibre, and, on account of its weight, was carried on a broad shoulder belt. As a matchlock it was a fairly impracticable weapon, and later -versions were fitted with wheel-locks.
Another horseman’s firearm was the dragon. This was something between a petronel and a pistol. Traditionally it had a. dragon’s head at its muzzle, and it is supposed to have given its name to the French Dragons (Dragoons), first raised by Charles de Cosse, Marechal de Brissac, in 1600. Of the later and similar English troops, Markham, in his Souldier’s
FiG. 45- PETRONELS.
Acidence of 1645, says: ‘The last sort of which our horse troopes are composed are called dragoons, which are a kind of footmen on horsebacks, and do now indeed succeed the light horsemen, and are of singular use in all actions of warre. The armes defensive are an open head piece with cheeks, and a good buffs coat, with deeps skirts; and for offensive armes they have a faire dragon fitted with. an iron works, to be carried in a belt of leather, which is buckled over the right shoulder and under the left arms, having a turnill of iron work with a ring, through which the piece runnes up and downs; and these dragons are short pieces of sixteen inches the barrell, and full musquet bore, with firelocks or snaphaunces, also a belt with a flaske, pryming box, key, and bullet bag, and a good sword.’
In the heavy horse petronel and dag were succeeded in due course by carbine and pistol. The difference between a pistol and a dag is, however, not very clear. Weapons which we should normally call pistols were often called dags in England and tacks in Scotland in the early seventeenth, and, in the case of the latter, eighteenth centuries. Owing to their small size,. and consequent popularity as a personal weapon; pistols from very early days seem to  have expressed tastes in design and decoration of different gunsmiths. In addition, there have
FIG. 46. A DRAGON.
frequently .been fashions in pistol design which gunsmiths have met in their own particular style: To describe all the pistols which have been used in war would, therefore, be quite beyond the scope of the present work. Nevertheless there are two special types which must be mentioned. The first of these is the screw-barrel pistol. This had a cannon-shaped barrel ‘which screwed off so that the charge could be loaded direct into the breech  piece. These enjoyed a great vogue during the reign of Charles I and for some time afterwards. The second is -one of the most famous pistols, or rather -family of pistols, ever made.. This was the Scottish all-metal pistol, which, as far as is known, was first made towards the end of the sixteenth century. The earliest one on record was manufactured byAlison of Dundee. The principal difference between the Scottish pistol and others was that the stock was made of steel or brass instead of wood. The butts of the earliest models had a fish-tailed end, and they were sometimes made of wood encased in, or mounted with, brass or silver.
The early seventeenth-century carbine, according to a 1630 book on cavalry by Captain Cruso, was the same length as an arquebus but had a smaller bore. It was a flintlock, and it was slung from a shoulder belt by a swivel.
There were two disastrous expeditions during the reign of Charles 1, the failure of which was to some extent due to defective firearms. In the force sent to Cadiz, in fact, the majority of the firearms are said to have been either defective or useless. As a result of these deficiencies a special Commission under the Privy Seal appointed a select committee of gunmakers, arniourcrs, pikemakers and bandolier makers, `being the skillfullest and prime workmen of this land’, to undertake an investigation into the arms of the national militia and Trained Bands and to rectify any deficiencies. The London gunmakers mentioned as being on the Commission were Henry Rowland, Richard Burrowe, Thomas Addis, John Norcott, William Dawstin, John Watson and William Graves. These gunmaker members were temporarily vested with powers of proving and testing firearms.

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This is the story of the weapons used by the British soldier throughout the ages, and the many developments in personal arms during the course of history, and the reasons which influenced their design. It starts at the Battle of Hastings in which the seeds of the British army were sown, and it ends with the short magazine Lee-Enfield rifle which served the British Army through half a century and two world wars.
It is interesting to learn that in the days of chivalry the weapons of the aspirant to the order of Knighthood were placed at the altar and were never to be used save in defence of honour, virtue and justice. The hilt of his sword was the emblem of Christianity, and to this day the pressure of his lips on the Cross is commemorated in the officer’s salute. It is facts such as these which help to explain the fascination which hand weapons have for so many.
From military arms have descended their counterparts in the chase, in sporting combat and on the range. These too form an interesting study, both in the multiplicity of their design and types, far exceeding the recognized weapons of war.
The craftsmanship shown in the manufacture of these weapons, of which many fine examples are illustrated in this volume, will appeal to both the connoisseur and the collector, besides the fascinating story of how they came into use.

During his long vigil through the hours of darkness the weapons of the aspirant to the order of knighthood were placed at the altar. He was taught that these weapons must never be used save in the defence of honour, virtue and justice. The hilt of his sword was formed in the shape of the emblem of Christianity; and to this day the pressure of his lips on the Cross, as he draws his sword, is commemorated in the Officer’s salute.
It seems probable that it is this tradition of the higher symbolism of weapons that has been largely responsible for the care and attention which, throughout his history, the British soldier has been exhorted to bestow upon his personal arms.
It is no doubt the glamour of ancient chivalry which explains in part the fascination which hand weapons have for so many. This is not, of course, the sole reason. The skill and craftsmanship so often shown in their manufacture, and the fact that they are of a convenient size for handling and display, invite the attention of the collector.
From military arms have descended their counterparts in the chase, in sporting combat and on the range. These too form an attractive study, but in the multiplicity of their type and design they exceed by far the authorized weapons of war; and to deal with them adequately would be beyond the scope of any one book.
This, then, is the story of the weapons which have been used by British fighting men, and of such developments which have influenced their design. It starts, since it must start somewhere, at the Battle of Hastings, in which the seeds of an eventual British Army were sown; and it ends with the supersession of the Short Magazine Lee-Enfield rifle, which served the British Army through half a century and two World Wars.

If one takes the battle of Hastings as a starting-point in a history of weapons, one must logically start with the bill; for this was the principal weapon of the armies of the Saxon kings. It consisted of a heavy axe-type blade, sometimes hooked or curved, set at the end of a long staff or handle. It was wielded with both hands as an axe, and a trained man became remark-7 ably skilled in its use. Few troops could face the steel wall of
FIG. I. SAXON BILLS.
the English household infantry with its line of flashing and cleaving bills. Even the Normans failed to break them by direct shock attack; and to the last they remained formidable as they died in compact groups round their fallen King.
William the Conqueror was too able a soldier to contemplate changing the infantry weapon of his new subjects, and the bill remained as one of the principal arms of the English foot soldier for many centuries after the Conquest. In any riot or tumult in mediaeval times the cry would be heard of, ‘Bills and Bows I Bills and Bows V
FIG. 2. TnE BOAR SPEAR. From ajourtrenth-centuiy MS.
It was not until the introduction of the pike in the fifteenth century that the bill began to lose its pre-eminent place as the infantry shock weapon. Even then it was by no means
0
Ij
FIG. 3. THE SPEAR IN BOAR HUNTING.
From the Cotton MS., ninth century.
replaced, for the Italian Daniel Barbaro, writing in ISS 1, notes the billmen as one of the elements of the’ English infantry. He says that their weapon was ‘a short thick staff, with an iron, like a peasant’s hedging bill…. With this, they strike so violently as to unhorse the cavalry; and it is made short because they like close quarters.’
As late as 1584 there were still a substantial number of billmen in the English forces; for a muster of the troops oil the Scottish border showed that out of about 7400 infantry, 2500 were armed with bills.
From the Bayeux Tapestry it will be seen that both sides at the battle of Hastings were armed with shafted weapons which
FiG. 4. Baas.
Left to right -. Henry IV, Edward IV, Henry VII, Elizabeth I,
Seventeenth century.
appear to be of identical design and something of a cross between lance and javelin; for they are depicted as used by both horse and foot for either throwing or overhand thrusting, and by the mounted knights in the ordinary fashion of a lance.
The spear had been used from very early times in these islands, and it had always formed part of the equipment of the Anglo-Saxon forces. At the time of the Norman invasion it was carried by the English household troops, probably as a secondary weapon, for use either in close combat or to be hurled as a javelin. In defence the latter method was the more likely, in order to break up the ranks of the attackers before they came to close contact with the steel wall and its formidable bills
The early Norman lance was of light construction and very similar to the Saxon spear. It underwent little change during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, though it may have been lengthened and -was probably eventually about thirteen or fourteen feet. The shaft was originally of ash, but in Chaucer’s day it seems to have been more commonly made of cypress wood. In the fourteenth century some protection was given

FIG. 5. SPEAR & LANCE HEADS.

1-3, British, 4-8, Anglo-Saxon, Norman; 9 & io, Fifteenth century;
i i & 12, Sixteenth century.
to the hand by fixing a small round plate (the ‘vam-plate’) to the shaft. In the fifteenth century the shaft of the lance was tapered. Instead of being comparatively narrow and of the same thickness throughout, it was increased in diameter from the point downward and a grip was made for the hand. Towards the end of the century, in the time of Edward IV, the shaft was fluted and the butt ends were shaped to various designs. The fourteenth-century tilting lance was extremely thick and was frequently painted spirally with the distinctive colours of its bearer.

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